7 The World Game — How to Make the World Work
8.1R. Buckminster Fuller
8.2 To start with, here is an educational bombshell: Take from all of today’s industrial nations all their industrial machinery and all their energy-distributing networks, and leave them all their ideologies, all their political leaders, and all their political organizations and I can tell you that within six months two billion people will die of starvation, having gone through great pain and deprivation along the way.
8.3 However, if we leave the industrial machinery and their energy distribution networks and leave them also all the people who have routine jobs operating the industrial machinery and distributing its products, and we take away from all the industrial countries all their ideologies and all the politicians and political machine workers, people would keep right on eating. Possibly getting on a little better than before.
8.4 The fact is that now–for the first time in the history of man for the last ten years, all the political theories and all the concepts of political functions – in any other than secondary roles as housekeeping organizations – are completely obsolete. All of them were developed on the you-or-me basis. This whole realization that mankind can and may be comprehensively successful is startling.
8.5 In pursuance of this theme and under auspices to be announced later we are going to undertake at Southern Illinois University in the next five years, a very extraordinary computerized program to be known as "How to Make the World Work."
8.6 Here on Southern Illinois’ campus we are going to set up a great computer program. We are going to introduce the many variables now known to be operative in economics. We will store all the basic data in the machine’s memory bank; where and how much of each class of the physical resources; where are the people, what are the trendings – all kinds of trendings of world man?
8.7 Next we are going to set up a computer feeding game, called "How Do We Make the World Work?" We will start playing relatively soon. We will bring people from all over the world to play it. There will be competitive teams from all around Earth to test their theories on how to make the world work. If a team resorts to political pressures to accelerate their advantages and is not able to wait for the going gestation rates to validate their theory they are apt to be in trouble. When you get into politics you are very liable to get into war. War is the ultimate tool of politics. If war develops the side inducing it loses the game.
8.8 Essence of the world’s working will be to make every man able to become a world citizen and able to enjoy the whole earth, going wherever he wants at any time, able to take care of all the needs of all his forward days without any interference with any other man and never at the cost of another man’s equal freedom and advantage. I think that the communication problem – of "How to Make the World Work" – will become extremely popular the world around.
8.9 The game will be played by competing individuals and teams. The comprehensive logistical information upon which it is based is our Southern Illinois University supported Inventory of World Resources Human Trends and Needs. It is also based upon the data and grand world strategies already evolved in the Design Science Decade being conducted, under our leadership here at Southern Illinois University, by world-around university students who, forsaking the political expedient of attempting to reform man, are committed to reforming the environment in such a manner as to "up" the performance per each unit of invested world
8.10 resources until so much more is accomplished with so much less that an even higher standard of living will be effected for 100% of humanity than is now realized by the 40% of humanity who may now be classified as economically and physically successful.
8.11 "The Game" will be hooked up with the now swiftly increasing major universities information network. This network’s information bank will soon be augmented by the world-around satellite scanned live inventorying of vital data. Spy satellites are now inadvertently telephoting the whereabouts and number of beef cattle around the surface of the entire earth. The exact condition of all the world’s crops is now simultaneously and totally scanned and inventoried. The inter-relationship of the comprehensively scanned weather and the growing food supply of the entire earth are becoming manifest.
8.12 In playing "The Game" the computer will remember all the plays made by previous players and will be able to remind each successive player of the ill fate of any poor move he might contemplate making. But the ever changing inventory might make possible today that which would not work yesterday. Therefore the successful stratagems of the live game will vary from day to day. The game will not become stereotyped.
8.13 If a player resorts to political means for the realization of his strategy, he may be forced ultimately to use the war-waging equipment with which all national political systems maintain their sovereign power. If a player fires a gun - that is, if he resorts to warfare, large or small, he loses and must fall out of the game.
8.14 The general systems theory controls of the game will be predicated upon employing within a closed system the world’s continually updated total resource information in closely specified network complexes designed to facilitate attainment, at the earliest possible date, by every human being of complete enjoyment of the total planet Earth, through the individual’s optional traveling, tarrying or dwelling here and there. This world-around freedom of living, work, study and enjoyment must be accomplished without any one individual interfering with another and without any individual being physically or economically advantaged at the cost of another.
8.15 Whichever player or team first attains total success for humanity wins the first round of the gaming. There are alternate ways of attaining success. The one that attains it in the shortest time wins the second round. Those who better the record at a later date win rounds 3, 4, and so on.
8.16 All the foregoing objectives must be accomplished not only for those who now live but for all coming generations of humanity. How to make humanity a continuing success at the earliest possible moment will be the objective. The game will also be dynamic. The players will be forced to improve the program – failure to improve also results in retrogression of conditions. Conditions cannot be pegged to accomplishment. They must also grow either worse or better. This puts time at a premium in playing the game.
8.17 Major world individuals and teams will be asked to play the game. The game cannot help but become major world news. As it will be played from a high balcony overlooking a football field-sized Dymaxion Airocean World Map with electrically illumined data transformations, the game will be visibly developed and may be live-televised the world over by a multi-Telstar relay system.
8.18 The world’s increasing confidence in electronic instrumentation in general – due to the demonstrated reliability of its gyro-compasses, and its ’blind’ instrument landings of airplanes at night in thick fog, and confidence in opinion-proof computers in particular, will make the "world game" playing of fundamental and spontaneous interest to all of humanity.
8.19 World Game
8.20 Ultimately its most successful winning techniques will become well known around the world and as the game’s solutions gain world favor they will be spontaneously resorted to as political emergencies accelerate.
8.21 Nothing in the game can solve the problem of two men falling in love with the same girl, or falling in love with the same shade under one specific tree. Some are going to have to take the shade of another equally inviting tree. Some may end up bachelors. Some may punch each other’s noses. For every problem solved a plurality of new problems arise to take their place. But the problems need not be those of physical and economic survival. They can be perplexing and absorbing in entirely metaphysical directions such as those which confront the philosophers, the artists, poets, and scientists.
8.22 The game must, however, find ways in which to provide many beautiful shade trees for each – that is to say a physical, and economic abundance adequate for all. There will, of course, have to be matchings of times and desires, requiring many initial wait-listings. As time goes on, however, and world-around information becomes available, the peaks and valleys of men’s total time can be ever improvedly smoothed out. Comprehensive coordination of bookings, resource and accommodation information will soon bring about a 24-hour, world-around viewpoint of society which will operate and think transcendentally to local "seasons" and weathers of rooted botanical life. Humanity will become emancipated from its mental fixation on the seven-day week frame of reference. I myself now have many winters and summers per year as I cross the equator from northern to southern hemisphere and back several times annually. I have now circled the earth so many times that I think of it and literally sense it in my sight as a sphere. I often jump in eight and nine hour time zone air strides. As a consequence my metabolic coordination has become independent of local time fixations.
8.23 It is my intention to initiate on several occasions in a number of places anticipatory discussion of the necessary and desirable parameters to establish for playing the world game. I intend to nominate as participants both in these preliminary discussions and in formal play only those who are outstandingly capable of discussing these parameters. The participants must also be those well known for their lack of bias as well as for their forward looking competence and practical experience.
APPENDIX “A”
8.24Appendix "A"
8.25 REPORT ON EXPERIMENTAL GEODESIC DOME September, 1957 McGill University School of Architecture STUDENT SEMINAR WITH MR. R. BUCKMINSTER FULLER
8.26 Compiled by: J. Hirayama J. Miller C. H. Rubenstein
8.27 Drawings by: E. Steciuk
8.28 LOOKING TOWARDS THE FUTURE
8.29 Today Canada is witnessing a great industrial expansion. Along with this expansion there are ever growing problems of mass housing. Much of this expansion is taking place in the outlying districts of Canada and to some extent, in the far Northern regions. In addition to the normal problems of mass housing, particularly for large industry, this type of housing presents further problems of transportation of materials and machinery as well as of accessibility.
8.30 It would appear thus far from observation and experimentation with the dome that it may possess a specialized affinity for use in these outlying districts. This is due to the fact that such a dome is low in cost relative to conventional structures. The materials of construction are extremely light and small in bulk and can therefore be very easily transported. Even inaccessible districts in the far North could be serviced by air. Another factor is the dome’s adaptability to a variety of purposes. Also, the fact that once built the dome can easily be moved is a further advantage.
8.31 This experimental dome is 28 feet in diameter and 18 feet in height at its highest point and weighs less than 1,000 pounds. It is constructed of hollow units of thin sheet aluminum and kraft paperboard which already have been found to have very good insulating properties. If the voids of these units were to be filled with a material such as rock-wool the insulating properties of the dome would be somewhat increased. The lightness of these units, each weighing less then ten pounds, allows for a rapid and simple erection which would not require any trained labour. Inherent in the shape of the dome is the fact that it retains its heat quite well and can be heated at low cost. Furthermore, during the summer such domes, with a vent at the top, have been found to produce a self-air-conditioning effect. Visually the dome has a simple and pleasant exterior and the interior is quite pleasing.
8.32 BEGINNING OF SEMINAR AND LECTURES
8.33 Mr. Fuller arrived in Montreal on Friday evening, September 14th. Student leaders met with him that night and all of the following day. During this time the facilities available at the School of Architecture and the workshop at the Montreal Building Trades Training Centre were shown to Mr. Fuller. It was then agreed that the School of Architecture would serve as the overall headquarters and as lecture room space for the group while the Trades Centre would serve as the workshop and place of construction. Before his arrival, Mr. Fuller had
8.34 already done preliminary mathematical calculations on the proposed experimental structure, but the bulk of the mathematical calculation was still to be done by the students.
8.35 On Sunday September 16th at 10 a.m. the first meeting of the seminar was called. For the next two days Mr. Fuller lectured to the group on his philosophy and general manner of thinking. Much discussion took place. It was basically a period of give and take between him and the students in which a close rapport was established.
8.36 The bond which developed in these first few days was extremely important because without it the students would not have been able to withstand the stress and strain which the seminar generated. One must realize that in the short period of ten days an experimental structure was completely calculated, all materials purchased, components fabricated, and then fitted together to produce the dome. Since this particular structure is a prototype no previous methods or patterns existed to aid in its fabrication and erection. The students were required at all times to work as a closely knit group in order to solve efficiently the many problems which developed.
8.37 On Tuesday morning September 18th, the group met in order to begin work on the dome. The group was organized on the basis of industrial procedures for prototyping. This meant dividing the students into the following groups:
8.38 Coordinator, first assistant, second assistant Purchasing Expediting Mathematical Department and Structural Analysis Research Photography Secretary Drafting Production Installation Public Relations
8.39 The job of the three coordinators was to relate the work of all the groups concerned and act as a liaison between Mr. Fuller and the separate departments. Purchasing and Expediting Groups bought and ensured delivery of materials.
8.40 The Research Department obtained data on these materials and tested them in order to determine both their properties and suitability. Simultaneously, the Mathematical Group was busy around the clock making the necessary calculations for the components of the dome which were then quickly delivered to the Drafting Department. The information was then transferred to drawings which were in turn used for fabrication. Once the materials and the necessary calculations were avail- able the production group began the fabrication of the component parts.
8.41 The Installation Group was in charge of erecting the dome. Graphic and pic- torial records were handled by the Secretary and Photographers respectively.
8.42 It was the Public Relations Department’s job to act as a liaison between interested public and the project.
8.43 After each man had been assigned his task, work on the construction of the dome began in earnest. At the end of seven days from this point the dome was sub-
8.44 Appendix "A"
8.45 stantially completed. In order to facilitate the understanding of this report the chronological treatment will now be temporarily abandoned in lieu of a detailed description of the dome.
8.46 DESCRIPTION OF THE DOME
8.47 The geodesic dome, a structure based on the geometry of the sphere enclosing a maximum of space for a minimum of effort and materials, is in essence a hemisphere.
8.48 The dome as built appears as an aluminum hemisphere whose exterior surface is patterned by a diamond-like grid of olive green tape. It has five hexagonal windows approximately half way down from the pole of the sphere along with five doors evenly spaced around the perimeter of the dome. The dome consists of about 100 diamond-shaped box structures made out of paperboard and covered on the outside with a diamond-shaped aluminum skin. Each component has two planes on the interior surface which are triangular in shape and whose common side is the long diagonal of the diamond. Because of the slope of the two triangular planes from the common long diagonal of the diamond there is a pleasant pattern of shade and light on the interior surface of the dome. The dome spans 28 feet and is 18 feet at its highest point; it weighs approximately 1,000 pounds.
8.49 DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS
8.50 There are two basic components, diamond number one and diamond number two which differ in size but not in form. Each component is made out of a flat sheet of paperboard folded into a box-like structure. These components have a diamond shape in plan
8.51 96 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 5
8.52 PLANPAPERBOARD DIAMOND NO.1 A SCALE ¡"=1’-0"
8.53 ALUMINUM DIAMOND NO.1 B
8.54 BULKHEAD NO.1 C
8.55 DIAMOND BOX PARTIALLY FOLDED
8.56 DIAMOND BOX PARTIALLY FOLDED WITH BULKHEADS
8.57 DIAMOND BOX COMPLETELY FOLDED
8.58 DIAMOND BOX COMPLETELY FOLDED WITH BRIDGE
8.59 DIAMOND BOX COMPLETELY FOLDED. (LOOKING AT BOTTOM)
8.60 COMPLETED DIAMOND BOX WITH ALUMINUM TOP.
8.61 TWO NO.1 DIAMONDS GOING TOGETHER A
8.62 SIDE ELEVATION A
8.63 END ELEVATION A
8.64 SECTION B
8.65 SECTION B
8.66 TWO NO.1 DIAMONDS JOINED TOGETHER WITH SELF-TAPPING SCREWS & JOINT COVERED WITH TAPE. B
8.67 Appendix "A"
8.68 measuring about 5 feet by 3 1/2 feet on the long and short diagonals respectively. This structure has a 6 inch depth inside which are placed two reinforcing paperboard bulkheads which force the diamond box to assume a two planar surface on the interior. This duality of planes on each component introduces the shade and light pattern on the interior of the dome.
8.69 Diamond number one has four equal sides while diamond number two has two short sides and two long sides. The angle to the vertical of the 6 inch side of the diamond box on the number one and number two boxes coupled with the fact that there are two different shaped structures, permits the curvature of the dome to form as these pieces are put together. Each component is covered on the flat surface (external one) with a thin aluminum sheet having a shape corresponding to the surface to which it is applied. The aluminum sheet has 3 inch flap extensions on two opposite sides of the diamond for assembling purposes.
8.70 DESCRIPTION OF MATERIALS
8.71 The aluminum came in sheets 36 inches by 144 inches, .014 inches in thickness. It has a high corrosive resistance and a fairly high tensile strength.
8.72 The paperboard is a corrugated paper built up by two layers of paper fibres, (liners) between which there is a layer of corrugated paper. The fibres of the outside layers and the corrugations are perpendicular to each other. This affords a maximum of strength. One of the more important attributes of the paperboard is its high wet strength.
8.73 An adhesive was used to glue aluminum to paperboard and paperboard to paperboard. This adhesive has a high shear strength, and is water resistant, has good weathering and aging characteristics and is easily applied.
8.74 The transparent covering of windows and doors is a poly-vinyl chloride acetate which stands up well through a wide range of temperatures. It also has a high tensile strength. The grid on the exterior of the dome is an adhesive tape used to weatherproof the joints between diamond shaped components. This tape has been used with success on some of Mr. Fuller’s earlier structures. It is a tape which has a maximum "quick-stick" for ease of application and a "high-hold" value for lasting adhesion.
8.75 START OF OPERATIONS
8.76 We should now like to return to the point where the construction of the dome began. It was at this point that the students began working under the various departmental headings mentioned previously. Of course, the object of the organization was the fabrication of the component parts and hence the erection of the dome. When the various departments were settled, arrangements were made to use the Trade Centre facilities, particularly the carpentry, electrical and metal shops. The School of Architecture became the headquarters and housed the following departments:
8.77 Mathematical and Structural Analysis Research Branch of Installations (model making and mock-ups) Drafting Purchasing and Expediting Public Relations
8.78 The Mathematical, Purchasing and Expediting, and Research Departments were the first groups to begin work simultaneously while other groups were briefed by Mr. Fuller in preparation for the work to come. The project now assumed a unity of operations - a unity in the sense that each department became interdependent and a snag or hitch was sufficient to seriously interrupt operations.
8.79 The Mathematical Department was primarily concerned with determing the diameter of the dome and then the dimensions of its component parts. This group worked in close association with the mock-up division of the Installations Department who translated the calculated results into full-size models. The Drafting Department worked in conjunction with the Installation Department here. These models were then tested by the Research Department and the necessary adjustments noted. The Mathematical Department then corrected their original calculations on the basis of this new data. The Mathematics group calculated the dimensions of numbers 1 and 2 diamonds. The model making group then started making a few small-scale models of the component parts. It was found that upon joining these components together a misfit occurred because no account had been taken of the thickness of the paperboard. This is a typical example of the disparity between theoretical calculations and practical applications. In the translation from theory to practice the procedure evolved was very similar to basic industrial patterns.
8.80 Meanwhile the Purchasing and Expediting Departments were busy running down the list of materials required by Mr. Fuller. Foremost in their task was locating these materials. Each material had a group of specifications which had to be closely followed. Tremendous cooperation was given by industry which was due in part to the enthusiasm of the students and also to the experimental nature of the project. Through careful and persistent searching out some materials with better than hoped for features were discovered and consequently purchased. In some cases, donations, and in others, substantial discounts were given to us. Once the materials had been purchased it was the job of the Expediting group to see that these materials arrived at the designated place at the proper time.
8.81 Before materials were purchased samples of each one were sent to the Research Department for testing. The Research Department studied the literature accompanying the products and gathered the necessary data. The qualities of each material were considered and tested with regard to their specific functions. The necessary tests were performed and once the material was found suitable, Mr. Fuller was consulted and upon his approval the Purchasing Department was free to act and arrange for immediate delivery.
8.82 Among other groups active at this time was the Installations Group which looked over the proposed site and obtained the tools and materials needed for erection. Needless to say the Secretary and the Photographers were busy recording all operations.
8.83 ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
8.84 The parts were now ready for component assembly. The assembly consisted of several operations performed by crews whose main objective was to maintain a steady flow of parts from one crew to the other until the component emerged completed - basically, an assembly line operation. There was a minimum of four crews in operation. The first two crews were concerned solely with applying glue to the necessary areas. The third crew was responsible for moving completed parts from one crew to the other and for the storage of completed components. The fourth crew, consisting of four men, worked on the jig to assemble the diamond box structure. In addition, they glued the aluminum cover to the paperboard box.
8.85 Appendix "A"
8.86 Until a set and efficient pattern was evolved (a production-engineering problem) the process was slow and erratic. It must be noted here that the students involved never before had any contact with actual prototyping nor any experience with setting up such a production schedule. Yet, within a very short period of time and under the extreme stress and strain of lack of sleep (students often worked for thirty to thirty-five hours continuously) a smooth assembly-line operation was developed.
8.87 Originally it was thought that in the gluing process the glued surfaces would have to be temporarily held together while the glue dried. Consequently, heavy-duty staplers and staples were purchased for this purpose. However, Research and Purchasing Departments discovered a glue providing great strength in shear which eliminated the use of staplers and staples. This glue is applied to the two surfaces which are to be glued together. The glue is allowed to dry on each surface independently for about ten minutes, and then upon contact of the two surfaces, almost the full strength of the bond is immediately established. This bond is so strong that in tests the material would fail in shear before the glue.
8.88 The procedure of assembly of all the component parts was as follows:
8.89 1. Two gluing masters were prepared for paperboard diamonds numbers 1 and 2. These gluing masters showed the specific areas on the paperboard sheets which were to be glued.
8.90 2. A crew of two men applied glue with brushes to the specific areas on paperboard sheets. These were then allowed to dry for ten minutes. At the same time 3 inch wide aluminum strips were glued into proper place on the paperboard.
8.91 3. At the same time another gluing crew was applying glue to the necessary surfaces of the bulkheads and the bridges.
8.92 4. After ten minutes the paperboard sheet was brought to the jig and placed in it. Each man of the four man crew took a position at one of the four apexes of the diamond shaped box. Then, by carefully manipulating the glued surfaces into their correct position with the aid of blank paper (to keep the glued surfaces from touching) all apexes were brought into the correct relationship - the paper removed and upon contact the surfaces were glued. Now the sides of the box were in position.
8.93 5. Glued bulkheads and one bridge were now brought to the jig and placed in position in the box. This positioning determines the "open V" shape that the box assumes. The four remaining flaps of the paperboard sheet were then folded over and glued down over the top of the bulkheads. The bridge which was then glued in place covered the void between the flaps and completed the diamond box structure.
8.94 6. The box was then taken out of the jig and glue applied to the area where the aluminum diamond would be placed. Simultaneously, the aluminum diamond was given a coat of glue.
8.95 7. After ten minutes it was replaced in the jig. The aluminum sheet was then placed over the paperboard box and carefully positioned, again with the use of blank paper to keep the glued surfaces from touching. The blank paper was then carefully slipped out while the aluminum was pressed down in place. Because of the shape of the box the aluminum assumed a very slight convex curvature.
8.96 8. The finished component was now removed from the jig and stored.
8.97 9. All component parts were then carefully marked for quick identification with coloured crayon.
8.98 100 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 5
8.99 ERECTION OF THE DOME
8.100 The necessary tools for the erection were electric drills, scaffolding, electric extensions (up to 300 feet in length), screw drivers, lights, ropes, ladders and tarpaulins. These were obtained from the McGill University Department of Buildings and Grounds, and the Trades Centre. At this time the necessary self-tapping metal screws were purchased. A small model of the dome had already been constructed by the Installations Group. As a result of this model it was discovered that an error could easily be made in positioning the number 2 diamonds. Therefore it was necessary to heed this warning in the actual erection. The model also helped to familiarize the students with the shape of the dome and its openings. This was particularly important in this type of project where the individual working in his special department tends to lose sight of the overall concept. It should be noted that at this point of operations a few departments such as Purchasing and Expediting, Mathematical, Production, and Research, had completed the bulk of their work and were ready to join the Installations Group in erecting the dome. Eventually the Installations Group absorbed all of the students in the project.
8.101 Before all the components had been completed a small installation crew with Mr. Fuller had already begun to assemble the first five number 1 diamonds which would form the top part of the dome. Many of the problems arising out of errors in making the components here presented themselves. They were eventually resolved but only after a long all night struggle. But the pattern was now set and much time would be saved. The Installation Group had now decided to build the dome from the top down. This presented problems of lifting the structure up as students added components. At first scaffolding was used which forced the dome to rest on four points. However, this was found to be antagonistic to the basic shape which the dome tried to assume due to gravity and the shape of components. Therefore, after a few components had been added the supporting scaffolding was removed and a central post-support was substituted. A few ropes prevented the structure from swaying.
8.102 Appendix "A" 101
8.103 The procedure of erection was as follows:
8.104 1. The five point star previously constructed was set into position on scaffolding. 2. Various diamond components were placed into their proper positions with the 3 inch flap overlapping its neighbour. 3. Two men then drilled holes in the flap to accommodate the self-tapping screws. 4. Two other men put in the self-tapping screws. Five screws were placed in each flap. 5. Rings of components were added - the dome gradually took shape with the inclusion of its windows and doors.
8.105 6. As the structure went up component by component it was discovered that the erection procedure could be accelerated by assembling separately groups of four components and then fitting this unit onto the existing structure. As a result, crews were spontaneously formed and the construction was accelerated. 7. At the equator (base) of the dome diamonds numbers 1 and 2 had to be specially cut - according to the Mathematical Department’s calculations - so that the dome would rest on a flat base. (This is actually the truncation of the sphere at its equator).
8.106 The original design intended for components to be glued to each other by means of the aluminum flaps. However, since a degree of demountability was desirable this procedure was abandoned in favour of self-tapping screws. This necessarily weakens the structure as tension is transmitted through screws instead of through the whole surface area of the flap - about 146 square inches of flap as opposed to about 5 square inches of effective transmission with screws.
8.107 The dome structure was substantially complete after two days.
8.108 102 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 5
8.109 FINISHING OF THE DOME
8.110 Finishing of the dome entailed the following:
8.111 1. Addition of screws to strengthen flap connections. 2. Taping of all external joints at flaps - weatherproofing. 3. Glazing of doors and windows with clear vinyl. 4. Base finishing and anchoring of dome. 5. Inside finishing - painting and taping over joints.
8.112 1. Additional screws were added in each flap to increase the area of transmission of stresses from one component to another and effectively increase the strength of the dome. 2. All external joints on the dome (where flaps of one component overlapped its neighbour) were covered with a weatherproofing tape. This tape is known as "Permacel" tape - an olive-coloured cotton cloth tape waterproofed with a plastic coating. Before application the aluminum surface to be covered was cleaned with varsol to remove the oil film and dirt. (This tape had been previously tested by the Research Department and found to meet all our requirements). This tape was carefully trimmed once in place, which afforded a very neat pattern expressing the structure of the dome. 3. All windows and doors were glazed with a clear vinyl. This vinyl was applied with the Permacel tape, and a heavier gauge was used on the outside. This resulted in double glazed openings with a six inch insulating air space between the sheets of vinyl. One of the five sets of doors is finished so that it buttons on and permits entry or exit.
8.113 Appendix "A" 103
8.114 4. The dome was moved to its permanent site a few hundred feet away from its place of erection. This was done before the glazing was completed. An 8 inch concrete block ring foundation was prepared on the permanent site. A plywood ring was placed on top of the blocks to receive the dome. The transfer of the dome was an exciting moment. It was easily carried by twenty-five students and set down on its permanent foundation. Before setting the dome down a heavy nylon fiberthin material was draped over the plywood ring and then glued up on to the dome inside and out. This acts as a waterproof membrane for the base of the dome. This fiberthin was then covered with Permacel tape to produce a more finished appearance. For anchorage, steel rods 5 feet in length were driven in scissors-like fashion into the ground. Aluminum straps were then screwed to the out- side of the dome at its base and connected by means of a bolt and high strength airplane cable to the two eyes of the steel rods. Three such an- chors were placed around the dome with a fourth anchored to an existing concrete pier.
8.115 5. The interior joints of the dome were then taped with a paper tape. All interior surfaces were then sprayed with a white paint. Once the dome was painted white the effect inside was extremely interesting as each com- ponent had a play of light and shadow on it.
8.116 The dome was now complete.
8.117 A great deal of energy was expended by the students on this project. It was not un- common for groups of students to work some thirty to thirty-five hours continuously around the clock. This manner of schedule was necessitated by the fact that the project only began two weeks before the beginning of the fall term and that Mr. Fuller could be with the group for just the two weeks. In such a project as this one it was difficult to assess the space of time that it would take. All concerned felt that two weeks would be sufficient. However, at the time of this report it is quite obvious that a month could have been easily filled. As a result of this intensive schedule errors occurred which under normal working conditions would have been avoided. Perhaps it is extraordinary that even though these inaccuracies occurred the components of the dome went together quite well. It is also interesting to note that Mr. Fuller has suggested that without the unique conditions of this seminar, namely the students’ initiative and drive, and industrial cooperation, normally such a research pro- ject would have cost more than $100,000 and would have taken at least six months to develop. The actual fabrication and erection time of this dome from inception took ten days and cost approximately $4,500.
8.118 Appendix "A"
8.119 WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE GEODESIC EXPERIMENT December 1954
8.120 A CHRONICLE OF THE PROJECT
8.121 On November 30, 1954 (Tuesday) Mr. Fuller began lecturing to the Washington University School of Architecture. His lectures, introductory to the project, were carried through December 7 (Tuesday). The aim of the project was stated to be the design and fabrication of a geodesic dome structure. At the end of the day a Coordinator and his assistant for the project were elected.
8.122 December 8 (Wednesday): Following a discussion led by Mr. Fuller on organization, the members divided into eight committees:
8.123 Research Documentary Mathematics Treasury Production Engineering Purchasing Public Relations Drafting
8.124 Each committee then chose its chairman and assistant, and the members familiarized themselves with their functions.
8.125 December 9 (Thursday): The TREASURY opened an account with Mr. Fuller who was underwriting the project. RESEARCH completed two models to determine the orientation of the dome’s base, while the MATHEMATICS committee calculated length and size of the various structural members. The DRAFTING committee assigned work schedules and began drafting connector details for the joints. The PURCHASING committee contacted local lumber companies for prices of lumber. A visit to Monsanto Chemical Company yielded 25 pounds of a new waterproofing wood glue scheduled to be shipped from their Massachusetts plant and arrive on December 14. The PRODUCTION committee began gathering data for sizes and quantity of materials. Study on a suitable joint connection was begun. PUBLIC RELATIONS contacted the Washington University News Bureau to discuss a publicity program. It was decided to wait until the completion of the dome to make any news releases. The DOCUMENTARY committee began compilation of the reports and the transcription from tape recording of Mr. Fuller’s lectures.
8.126 A meeting at 4 p.m. with Mr. Fuller to review the project’s first 24 hours of operation produced a change in structural plans due to the excessive weight of the dome brought about by the use of wood as a prototype in the construction. The triangular type construction of the tetrahedron tensile members would be employed in place of the original design to preclude this excessive weight.
8.127 December 10 (Friday): RESEARCH consulted the Dean of the Engineering School to determine suitable tensile materials. Piano wire and plastic coated nylon were recommended. MATHEMATICS calculated the theoretical dimensions of the tension and compression members and the angles necessary for construction. Linear footage of lumber and cable was roughly estimated. PURCHASING inquired about lumber prices and arrangements were made to purchase
8.128 1600 linear feet of Western Cedar (11/16" x 3 5/8" S3S) at 14 cents per linear foot. PRODUCTION continued on joint design and a full scale model of the strut was constructed. PUBLIC RELATIONS compiled a progress chart for display. A photography studio was set up to take still shots of models and so forth. DOCUMENTARY established procedure and assignments to insure complete coverage.
8.129 December 13 (Monday): RESEARCH neared completion of a balsa wood model of the dome. A Nico Press tool was borrowed from Ozark Air Lines. MATHEMATICS calculated tensile and compressive stresses in units, and tests were made to determine the stress and elongation of the cable to be used as tensile members. PURCHASING bought the wood, which was to be picked up at 4:30 p.m., December 14. Cadmium-plated bolts were purchased at 7 cents each. PRODUCTION arrived at a suitable joint solution. There remained a problem to pre-determine jig sizes for strut members due to a change in the dome size.
8.130 It was determined that Francis Field (WU football field) would be the experimental building site, with final erection near Givens Hall. The size of the dome was changed from a 36’ diameter to 42’ to enlarge entrance openings. Mr. Fuller estimated that the first assembly of the dome would begin Friday, December 17 and take about one day; second assembly, 1/2 day; third assembly, 3 hours.
8.131 December 14 (Tuesday): RESEARCH completed model of the dome. MATHEMATICS recalculated member lengths due to change of dome size. PURCHASING made pick-up of the wood. A steel disc would be ready the following morning; 1/2" steel bolts, 18" long, were purchased. PRODUCTION reported a change in joint design from metal disc with wooden mast to wooden disc with metal mast; strut ends would be symmetrical. Final jig assembly was begun.
8.132 December 15 (Wednesday): Arrival date of Monsanto glue was moved up to December 16. Broderick Bascom donated 400 feet of aircraft cable. MATHEMATICS made the final report on the length of tension and compression members and determined dimensions of the joints and connectors. DRAFTING began working drawings and templates for design. PURCHASING received donation of steel washers from Mississippi Valley Steel. PRODUCTION continued jig assembly. A sample strut was fabricated and tested. Operations were set up for welding, drilling and cable fabrication. Methods and manpower for production line were determined. PUBLIC RELATIONS reported that a 15-minute color film of the project would be produced by KETC, St. Louis’ educational television station. Costs were to be assumed by the University. Arrangements were made for the News Bureau to provide news releases on Monday, December 20.
8.133 December 16 (Thursday): RESEARCH procured tension strapping equipment and found that Weldwood glue would have to be purchased and used until the arrival of Monsanto’s glue. MATHEMATICS re-checked calculations for jig dimensions. A full-size test model of the tetrahedron unit was made. DRAFTING drew and cut templates for nailing operations. PURCHASING procured tools for construction. PRODUCTION continued set-up of jigs and sample strut testing. Parts were being cut and readied for assembly. PUBLIC RELATIONS sent out letters of appreciation and invitations to the assembly to numerous firms and persons. A new committee, INSTALLATION, was initiated, responsible for the erection of the dome.
8.134 December 17 (Friday): The entire project personnel began to concentrate on the Production and Installation activities. In PRODUCTION, the struts were in the final construction stages: sanding and finishing procedures were started, cables cut and fabricated. PUBLIC RELATIONS turned over a complete press release to the News Bureau. DOCUMENTARY completed the transcription of Mr. Fuller’s lectures. INSTALLATION started to lay out procedure for the erection of the dome.
8.135 Appendix "A"
8.136 December 18 (Saturday): Work of all committees except PRODUCTION and INSTALLATION ceased, in preparation for the erection. PRODUCTION completed construction of struts, joint hardware and cable. All tools and material required for the erection were assembled.
8.137 December 19 (Sunday) & December 20 (Monday): Actual erection of the dome just east of Givens Hall completed. (See Erection Procedure - page 89).
8.138 December 21 (Tuesday): The TREASURY balanced the books and gave Mr. Fuller a preliminary financial report. The DOCUMENTARY committee began to assemble a finished report on the entire project to include a condensation of Mr. Fuller’s lectures. All material, written and drawn, was assembled as a complete file on the project. The DRAFTING committee started to make plans to prepare drawings for the final report.
8.139 ORGANIZATION
8.140 Representatives from the following groups met daily to review progress and discuss proposed procedure.
8.141 CO-ORDINATORS: As general managers, responsible for the smooth functioning of the organizational system of the project. To -solve organizational problems by working for better procedures -schedule completion dates for various phases of the project -co-ordinate work of various committees toward common goal -plan most effective use of man power
8.142 TREASURY: Control project finances. -authorize all monetary transactions -pay bills, keep record of all sales and receipts -counsel on all issues of budget -receive project expense money from Mr. Fuller, prepare and maintain balance sheet
8.143 MATHEMATICS: Responsible for all dimensions and calculations required for the design; production and erection of the dome. -calculate all structural members, all angles involved in connections -calculate and convert theoretical to actual dimension for all stages
8.144 RESEARCH: Perform necessary basic research into any phase of the project. -investigate types and sizes of domes most applicable to the present problem -build preliminary models of various dome schemes -investigate, with purchasing committee, best and most economic materials -investigate performance of proposed assemblies and materials as related to job requirements
8.145 DRAFTING: Provide drawings necessary for the successful completion of the project. -provide quick sketches, as required, for meetings and discussions -execute working drawings of the structure and templates for construction, from calculations of the mathematics committee
8.146 PURCHASING: Procure all material necessary for completion of the project, by purchase or donation. -procure materials for experiments and models -obtain all material requested by committees -procure materials necessary for construction of the dome
8.147 PRODUCTION ENGINEERING: Produce efficiently, and on schedule, all parts needed for erection of the dome. -prepare working models of parts developed by the research committee and determine their feasibility according to materials used -design jigs and assemblies required to mass produce parts -undertake mass-production of dome members and sub-assemblies necessary for final erection
8.148 PUBLIC RELATIONS: Keep general public and all participants well informed of the project’s intent, progress, completion. -post daily progress of each committee and set up material and method displays -provide publicity through newspapers (campus, city, trade), television, radio and posters -keep a complete photographic record of project -handle all correspondence
8.149 ERECTION: Plan and supervise the erection. -procure all equipment necessary for erection -determine procedure of, prepare site for, and oversee entire erection
8.150 DOCUMENTARY: Document and present all activities -secure daily reports from all committees -keep file of all data, information and photographs -transcribe Mr. Fuller’s lectures -provide a complete file for the School of Architecture -publish a comprehensive report on the project and Mr. Fuller’s lectures
8.151 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
8.152 To begin the design of the struts and joints Mr. Fuller presented the following situation. The dome was to be 5/8 of a sphere composed of 90 identical length struts approximately 7 feet in length. The basic unit, a tetrahedron, would be composed of 3 such struts connected at a compression joint. To make this tetrahedron unit rigid, 3 peripheral tension members and 3 non-spherical tension members which connect a mast in the compression joint to the outer ends of the 3 struts were included. Five of these tetrahedron units comprise a star unit. The dome is composed of 6 stars. It was now possible to proceed with structural analysis.
8.153 The first question that arose was which to design first; strut or joint, because either would restrict the pattern the other was to assume. However, the conditioning of the strut to various joints was a matter of end treatment, and the general strut was preliminarily assumed leaving the end design to evolve from the joint design.
8.154 STRUT: Wood as the strut material was decided upon for reasons of economy and workability. The mathematics for compressive stresses was not developed but realizing that the member was essentially columnar, the strut was designed to support the weight of an average person, beamwise.
8.155 The first strut was made of two 1/2" x 3" clear grade fir, furnished with internal blocking:
8.156 Appendix "A"
8.157 A tetrahedron was then assembled using a pin type joint with a 1" wood dowel mast 1’ high:
8.158 Strength tests were not attempted to any degree of precision as obvious weaknesses were realized in the pin; however, it was found that the tetrahedron was a rigid, controllable unit when the tension members were strung. It was also noted that it would support the weight of a person.
8.159 Western Cedar Hickory Fir Extreme fiber in bending 1450 3100 2300 compression 240 720 400 compression 1050 2200 1600 Horizontal shear 130 225 145 Modulus of elasticity 10 x 10 18 x 10 15 x 10 Weight 27 63 36
8.160 Max. strut strength (Western Cedar) 1050 x 3 3150#
8.161 Beam Strength (based on 2 x 4 spanning 8’) 297 x 1/1.625 183# (tested approx. 200#)
8.162 Cedar then, due to its economy of section to strength developed, was selected for the final strut design, which was determined after 8 joint studies.
8.163 JOINT: Two problems were to be solved: transference of the compressive stresses and hingability. Information from Mr. Fuller ruled out certain designs because they lacked sufficient resistance to rotary movement about the joint. The severity of this problem was not realized to its full extent until after the erection operation commenced.
8.164 110 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 5
8.165 To organize the effectiveness of each of our joint proposals the major function of the joints had to be determined. This was the transference of the compressive stresses, with the following prerequisites: rotary motion check, a mast seat, provision for 90ř resistance check, and equalized strut lengths. The second function, hingability, was abandoned.
8.166 18g metal 3ij" 3" Joint #2
8.167 Joint #2 proved difficult because it involved too many accurate ’bends’ in the plates.
8.168 Following are the joint types #3 through #8:
8.169 strut end eccentric lock notch Joint #3
8.170 concentric #4
8.171 1¡" wood mast 6"x¿" plywood " wire hinger thin wall conduit bearing pivot #5
8.172 4" washers #6
8.173 keying notch 1¡" wood bearing dowel #7
8.174 ¡" bolt ů 18" long #8
8.175 Appendix "A" 111
8.176 Joint #6 was judged the best structurally, requiring only one part. A later inspection however revealed that it did not permit equal strut lengths which was the very theme of the triangulation method adapted to the sphere.
8.177 Joint #7 was then developed which could satisfy the condition that the struts be of equal lengths, because it replaced direct strut contact with a compression cylinder. One apparent difficulty here was that rotary motion was checked by the rigidity of the tetrahedron unit only.
8.178 The final solution, joint #8, came about after further consultation with Mr. Fuller. The compressive stresses were shifted to the plywood disc by removal of the cylinder of joint #7. The joint now fulfilled the primary prerequisites: a good mast seat, a 90ř check against rotary action, and equal length struts.
8.179 ERECTI0N
8.180 The preliminary plan of procedure was as follows: six teams of 5 members and a captain were established; each was to control one of the ’star’ units. The plan involved the assembly of stars 1, 2 and 4 on the ground. Then rotating this smaller structure in such a manner as to have it form 2 sides and the top of the dome, the last 3 stars (3, 5 and 6) could then be raised into position and all remaining joints made firm. This method provided 2 advantages: reduction of manpower to 30 men, and elimination of an accurate ground survey.
8.181 On Sunday morning, December 19, a briefing was given at 9:30 a.m. Difficulty in obtaining entrance into Francis Field and adverse weather conditions (the night before a light snow had covered the ground) forced the decision to erect the dome at the final site, as shown in the following plan.
8.182 stock pile final site GIVENS HALL BIXBY HALL 5 4 1 6 3 2 North
8.183 At 10:30 erection began. Team One picked up materials and equipment and proceeded to designated area, followed by teams Two, Three, etc., assembling the five "tets". As the ’tets’ were assembled by each team, the captains directed the assembly of the individual stars and attached all remaining tension cables. Except for tangling difficulties, caused by loose packaging, progress up to this point was smooth.
8.184 After lunch teams 1, 2 and 4 moved together. Each raised its star to form the small structure. With ladders and strapping tools all joints were connected and held firm. Joint connections proved difficult, because the three stars were not at proper elevations and angles. It was now realized that a proper site survey would have proven invaluable.
8.185 At 4:30 p.m., a meeting was held to discuss the progress and the problems that had arisen. The students recognized that there was time for only one erection. Several alter- nate methods of finishing were suggested. It was decided that the dome would be finished by adding each of the remaining "tets" singly. Mr. Fuller was notified of the day’s work, pro- gress, problems and decisions.
8.186 On Monday morning, December 20, a telephone conversation was held with Mr. Fuller. He suggested that we continue as planned and if the process was not smooth try an alternate method.
8.187 Sash cord was attached to one of the upper joints of the small structure which was then rotated on its two legs or bearing points (2 of 5) by means of the lifting rope and two teams lifting on the opposite side. Then team 6 (see plan) moved its star into position. Again joint- ing difficulties were present. When the stars were in correct position with respect to angle and elevation, the joints were made fast with little or no difficulty. When the four stars were positioned, a temporary center mast was put into place to help support the top star correctly and safely. All connections were made firm and the dome was allowed to rest on three of its bearing points. Star 3 was then added in similar manner.
8.188 Because of an account already published in the local papers, stating that the erection of the dome was to begin at 1:30 that day, placement of the last star was postponed until that time. Little, if any, trouble was encountered in completing the dome. The time of com- pletion was about 3:15 p.m.
8.189 The center mast was removed and the area was cleared for moving the dome 100’ to its final site. For demonstration purposes and for safety 10 men easily picked up the dome (2 men per leg or bearing point) and walked it to its final site. It was the opinion of those who lifted the dome that it could have been moved by 5 men.
8.190 After relocation, the dome was again raised and the bases and fastenings attached and lowered. Three 18" bolts were driven into the ground through each of the base plates to anchor the dome securely.
8.191 The base diameter of the dome is approximately 40’, the great circle diameter, 42’; weight approximately 750 pounds and the height at center approximately 24’.
8.192 FINANCES
8.193 Expenses:
8.194 Equipment 12.43 Overhead 57.13 Materials Dome models 4.10 Joint models .91 Other experiments 7.58 Erection experiments .40 Finishing dome 450.98 463.87 463.87 Total expenses of project - 533.53
8.195 Appendix "A" 113
8.196 Cost breakdown:
8.197 Lumber 293.47 Hardware 135.59 Sheet metal 1.50 Paint and brushes 23.34 Glue 11.73 Equipment 12.62 Model material 4.35 Gas mileage (715 mi) 35.75 Public Relations 9.55 Documentary 5.63 ______ 533.53
8.198 We were reminded by John Dixon (in sympathy with Mr. Fuller’s philosophy) that we were building at Washington University not a "thing" but a process. In reflection, we know that this was so.
8.199 "Bucky", in his last meeting with us, remarked that he was pleased with the final package as well as with the erection. In commending the student group, his comments were, as they had been throughout his visit, chiefly about this process, the "how" and "why" and the organization, not the thing–the dome.
8.200 Dean Pickens, in reviewing the 3-week experiment, recognized its educational value, remarking that the school’s flexibility had surely been tested. It is difficult to report accurately public reaction to the finished product. What St. Louis architects, the University and the students observed is just beginning to be noted. Several participants had opinions on and solutions for the functioning of a large group, on the individual, team and organizational levels. Mr. Fuller’s statement, "The behavior of the whole cannot be predicted by the behavior of its parts", was realized by many.
8.201 Appendix "A" 115
8.202 R. BUCKMINSTER FULLER PROJECT
8.203 Fifth Year Architecture Class
8.204 Tulane University
8.205 New Orleans, Louisiana
8.206 February 2 - 27, 1954
8.207 SELECTION OF PROJECT
8.208 Mr. Fuller came to Tulane University February 2, 1954. At this time we expressed our desire to him as a group to engage in some type of prototyping activity. He then presented to us the possibility of building an 18-foot model of a geodesic hemisphere 108 feet in diameter for use as a Marine alert aircraft hanger. He explained to us that the Marine Corps feels a very definite need for highly mobile shelters to serve as barracks and hangers. They have decided that geodesic structures will serve this need most effectively and have requested that Mr. Fuller design such structures for them. The requirements for such mobile structures he explained to us as follows:
8.209 1. Must be extremely light. 2. Must be rapidly assembled by a crew inexperienced in construction. 3. Must be compactly packaged for transportation purposes. 4. Must be inexpensively mass produced. 5. Must be some material not easily picked up by radar beams. 6. Must withstand high wind, cold, snow, and other natural elements.
8.210 With a knowledge of the requirements for this structure we decided as a group to undertake the project. Mr. Fuller then discussed with us the selection of materials and method of construction for our dome which we have listed here in outline form.
8.211 I. Structural Material
8.212 A. Polyestered Cardboard
8.213 1. Advantages (a) Light (b) Strong (c) Inexpensive (d) Non-priority material (e) Will not be easily picked up by radar beams
8.214 II. Structural Units
8.215 A. Description
8.216 1. Eight frequency polyestered cardboard triangles of triangular section
8.217 116 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 5
8.218 B. Manufacturing Process
8.219 1. Folding a flat piece of cardboard into a length of triangular section and stapling in place
8.220 2. Folding an integral length of section into a triangle stapled at the joint
8.221 3. Polyestering the folded stapled triangle
8.222 C. Advantages
8.223 1. Polyester combines with the cardboard fiber to produce great strength in the cardboard
8.224 2. Polyestering the cardboard renders it impervious to moisture
8.225 3. Light weight section provides large surface area
8.226 III. Fastening Device
8.227 A. Industrial Filament Tape
8.228 1. Advantages (a) Strength (b) Available by mass production (c) Compact for shipping purposes (d) Universal fastener (e) Weight negligible (f) Simplicity of application
8.229 IV. Method of Assembly
8.230 A. Placing of continuous cardboard wedges between the sides of adjacent triangles (Figure 2)
8.231 With the structural units selected, wedges are necessary to maintain the angular openings between triangles which produce the spherical form of the dome. (Figure 3)
8.232 117
8.233 V. Assembly Units
8.234 A. Small diamonds, each consisting of two identical triangles (one positive and one negative)
8.235 B. Parallelograms, each consisting of eight small diamonds
8.236 C. Dome itself, consisting of thirty parallelograms
8.237 ORGANIZATION
8.238 In order to most effectively carry out the project, Mr. Fuller suggested that our group be organized on an industrial basis. Each person was thus to be responsible for a certain phase of the work, yet anyone could help with any other phase if he so desired.
8.239 Our industrial setup was as follows:
8.240 1. Coordinator Two Assistant Coordinators
8.241 Kept the whole project smoothly and efficiently in progress, being sure that each job was done effectively and on schedule.
8.242 2. Mathematics Chairman Three Mathematics Assistants
8.243 Performed all the mathematics required for the construction of the dome.
8.244 3. Drafting Chairman Drafting Assistant
8.245 Made all drawings necessary to construction of dome, die patterns, etc.; also assisted in making sketches for report.
8.246 118 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 5
8.247 4. Purchasing Agent Assistant Purchasing Agent
8.248 Purchased all necessary materials and equipment.
8.249 5. Treasurer Assistant Treasurer
8.250 Paid all bills, kept and balanced books for expenditures.
8.251 6. Secretary
8.252 Kept records of data and compiled report of project.
8.253 7. Expediter
8.254 Duties were to assure prompt delivery of out-of-town supplies. Since most of the materials were available locally, the expediter was able to devote his time to making a photographic record of the project.
8.255 8. Production Chairman Production Assistant
8.256 Made all dies and tools for production and produced the completed polyestered cardboard triangles.
8.257 9. Installation Chairman Installation Assistant
8.258 Assembled the completed triangles into assembly units and finally into the geodesic dome.
8.259 10. Packing Chairman Packing Assistant
8.260 Prepared the dome for shipment to Quantico, Virginia.
8.261 11. Public Relations
8.262 Released information to newspapers; arranged all public relations on and off the Tulane campus.
8.263 12. Experiment Chairman Experiment Assistant
8.264 Carried on continual experimentation with regard to production and assembly of dome.
8.265 Appendix "A" 119
8.266 With our industrial forces now set up, we made a tentative work schedule for our four weeks with Mr. Fuller as follows:
8.267 First Week Lectures by Mr. Fuller Second Week Tooling Third Week Production Fourth Week Assembly
8.268 This time table proved to be very effective and was followed successfully with each week’s work completed on schedule.
8.269 TOOLING
8.270 With the completion of the mathematical calculations, the production crew began making the dies. Sheets of one-half inch plywood, twelve inches wide, were used as a base for each die. For making the fold lines one-half inch plastic furring lath angles were fastened to the plywood with one-half inch wood screws.
8.271 The cardboard (200# test, 1/8" doublefaced corrugated) was ordered from the factory in pieces twelve inches wide and six feet long with the lengthwise fold lines already stamped. The dies were, therefore, made up to stamp on only the fold lines and cut lines of the angular folds (Figure 17).
8.272 When the cardboard arrived from the factory, it was discovered that the lengthwise fold lines were not stamped sharply enough to provide a good clean fold. Since the dies for each triangle had already been completed, however, it was decided to make a separate die for the lengthwise fold lines.
8.273 120 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 5
8.274 STAMPING
8.275 A total of 488 triangles were needed for construction of the dome of which 120 were Triangle 1’s; 90 Positive Triangle 2’s; 90 Negative Triangle 2’s; 60 Positive Triangle 3’s; 60 Negative Triangle 3’s; 30 Positive Triangle 4’s; 30 Negative Triangle 4’s; 8 Positive Triangle 1-A’s; and 8 Negative Triangle 1-A’s. In order to allow for possible error, 10 per cent over the required number were run off in each group.
8.276 The die for the lengthwise fold line was first placed in a track on the floor with the top of the track level with the top of the angles. A piece of cardboard was placed on top of the die and a 60-gallon tennis court roller was then rolled over the cardboard, stamping in the fold lines. This process was repeated until 536 pieces had been stamped.
8.277 The lengthwise fold die was then removed and the Triangle 1 die set in its place in the track. The cardboard with lengthwise folds stamped on was inserted and stamped by the same roller process.
8.278 When the sufficient number of Triangle 1’s had been stamped, the procedure was repeated with the other dies until the required number of each triangle had been stamped.
8.279 CUTTING
8.280 The excess cardboard in the folds was then cut out with a cutawl in order that the triangle might fold with smoother tighter corners. The ends were also cut at this time; an end flap being found desirable in strengthening the joint when the triangle was folded into shape.
8.281 Appendix "A"
8.282 121
8.283 NUMBERING
8.284 After the cutting process, the triangles were ready for numbering. The numbers were applied with a rubber hand-stamp and indelible ink.
8.285 A vertical numbering system was employed.
8.286 FOLDING
8.287 After being numbered the triangles were folded into triangular sections and stapled with a Bostitch self-locking stapler.
8.288 Each length of triangular section was then folded to form a basic triangle unit and stapled at the joint.
8.289 122 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 5
8.290 PRODUCTION LINE
8.291 The processes of stamping, cutting, folding and stapling described were carried on simultaneously on an assembly line basis. The roller for stamping the fold lines was operated by one man with two men inserting and removing the cardboard.
8.292 The cutawl was operated by one man who was able to cut four thicknesses of cardboard at one time. The hand numbering was done by one man with a rubber stamp. Two men were required for the section folding and two more men for the stapling into the final form.
8.293 Thus, nine men could be working on production simultaneously, converting the raw cardboard into finished triangles ready for polyestering.
8.294 POLYESTERING PROCESS
8.295 The completed triangles were now ready to be polyestered. Four students flew to North Carolina State College in order to learn from that group the method which they had developed for polyestering cardboard triangles.
8.296 The materials necessary for polyestering - Polylite, thinner, accelerator (Cobalt) and catalyst (DDM) - were brought back in the necessary amounts from North Carolina. The following items were purchased locally:
8.297 2 100 cc graduated cylinders 1 1000 cc graduated cylinder 2 porcelain, one-gallon buckets 2 porcelain flat pans 6 pairs of surgical gloves (proved unsatisfactory) 6 pairs of industrial rubber gloves 2 spatulas 18 inexpensive 2 1/2-inch wide paint brushes 1 gallon of acetone
8.298 The proportions used in our polyester batches were as follows (all percentages by volume):
8.299 Polylite 100 per cent Thinner 12 per cent Cobalt 1 per cent-(Cobalt and DDM should never be mixed together when in concentrated form as an explosion will occur. DDM 1 per cent
8.300 Batch 1, consisting of 800 cc of Polylite plus 1 per cent Cobalt, was mixed in one bucket while Batch 2, consisting of 800 cc of Polylite plus 1 per cent of DDM, was mixed in a second bucket. No chemical reaction took place. When the two batches were combined, however, and thinner added, the chemical changes occurred, allowing us approximately 20 minutes for application before the mixture hardened.
8.301 Two to four persons were engaged in painting the triangles, with one man mixing the polyester and another removing the triangles to the drying racks which had been improvised from 12-foot lengths of 2" x 4" resting at each end on ordinary drafting stools.
8.302 Appendix "A" 123
8.303 The process of painting and drying took place in the same room which was kept at a temperature of about 70 degrees. It was found that although the polyester gelled in 20 minutes in the mixing pan that the same polyester took two hours to dry when applied to cardboard triangles. It was also noted that cool night air was injurious to polyester during the gelling process.
8.304 ASSEMBLY OF DOME
8.305 The basic unit adopted for assembly was a diamond made up of two identical triangles, one plus and one minus. The idea of using a continuous cardboard wedge running the full length of each side of the triangle was abandoned; small cardboard pieces were inserted instead.
8.306 Industrial filament tape was then applied circumferentially at each wedge point to hold the triangles together in the diamond shape.
8.307 After all of the small diamonds had been completed, they were assembled in the same manner into parallelograms of sixteen triangles each.
8.308 Two such parallelograms form the large basic diamond. These parallelograms were then assembled into the dome itself. The dome was assembled indoors for the first time. Small red rubber balls two inches in diameter were inserted into the vertices of the triangles to promote rigidness and to form contact points for the vinyl covering at the vertices in order to allow the covering to naturally assume an involuted flutterproof form. It was found that the small cardboard pieces used for wedges were unsatisfactory. It was decided to disassemble
8.309 the dome in large diamonds (our basic diamond of 32 triangles each) and to reassemble the dome the next day out of doors using these large diamonds as the assembly units. It was also decided that when the dome was reassembled, that small wooden wedges should be substituted for the cardboard wedges. For ease of reassembly, the diamonds were marked with colored tape at each of the four corners.
8.310 The equator line was formed by placing the four half-diamonds ninety degrees on cen- ter with a full diamond filling in between each half-diamond to complete the equator line. The remaining nine diamonds were then added to complete the dome.
8.311 REMARKS CONCERNING DISPOSITION OF DOME
8.312 After its assembly out of doors, the dome was allowed to remain in position several hours in order that photographs might be taken. It was then disassembled for the second time and taken back into the architecture building where it was reassembled in its original position. Mr. Fuller’s time at Tulane had now expired; he was scheduled to leave for Virginia the fol- lowing day. It was agreed that the dome should remain here at Tulane for the present time in order that the students might, after his departure, work out the additional details nec- essary, such as the design and operation of the door, the attachment of wheels, etc. After several weeks when these details were completed, the Marines returned to Tulane for the dome, which was then packaged and transported to Quantico, Virginia.
8.313 It seems appropriate to include in our report that work which was done while Mr. Fuller was with us at Tulane, the actual building of the geodesic hemisphere.
8.314 CONCLUSION
8.315 In building our geodesic hemisphere, we have profited by all of the research and work which has gone before us; yet, our project is unique in itself. There has been no structure before it nor shall there be one after it that is its duplicate. Our dome has incorporated the advantages of those before it and attempted to avoid the disadvantages. In the same way, fu- ture structures will wish to incorporate our advantage without assuming our disadvantages also. For this reason we have noted here the following information.
8.316 Advantages of the Cardboard Construction Used
8.317 (1) Economy of cardboard. (2) Speed of mass production of cardboard sections. (3) Classification of both cardboard and polyester as non-priority materials. (4) Lightness of such construction; the weight of our eighteen-foot dome was 400# or 1.6#/ft.š.
8.318 Appendix "A"
8.319 (5) Compactness of packaging for transportational pur- poses; the structural members necessary for one eighteen -foot dome are contained in a package 1’ x 5’ x 6’.
8.320 (6) Simplicity of system, such that unskilled labor can repair or replace parts.
8.321 Disadvantages of the Cardboard Construction Used
8.322 (1) The stapling of the section required excessive time and labor.
8.323 (2) The unsymmetrical section used required twice the number of basic triangles.
8.324 (3) The industrial filament tape as utilized did not prove as satisfactory as anticipated; it was difficult to obtain a good tight connection resulting in an undesirable loose- ness of the triangles.
8.325 Through the constant evolution that is taking place, we can see the correction of our disadvantages in a stronger self-locking symmetrical section which utilizes dowels for rapid assembly.
8.326 125
APPENDIX “B”
8.327127
8.328 Appendix "B" 129
8.329 BOOKS ABOUT BUCKMINSTER FULLER
8.330 Marks, Robert W., Ph.D. Dr. Sc.: Author: The Dymaxion World of Buckminster Fuller. S.I.U. Press, Carbondale, Ill. $10. Very thoroughly illustrated. Comprehensive review of Fuller’s discoveries. (Reinhold, 1959) S.I.U. Press, 1966.
8.331 McHale, John, Author: Buckminster Fuller. George Braziller, Inc., (215 Park Avenue S., New York). $4.95. c1962. Well illustrated. Fuller’s design science strategies and disciplines, his philosophic tenets and operationally derived mathematical axioms.
8.332 BOOKS BY BUCKMINSTER FULLER, ALREADY PUBLISHED
8.333 Education Automation: Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, Ill. C1963. $1.95. Comprehensive inventory of suggested planning for new educational system - "Greatest Industry in History", a 20-year world forecast of techno-industrial revolution, paperback.
8.334 No More Second Hand God, Southern Ill. Univ. Press, Arcturus Books Div., Carbondale, Illinois. c1963. $4. Paperback, $2.25. A collection of poems and essays. Contains much of B. F.’s fundamental philosophy and mathematical speculation including some original mathematical discoveries. Calculations indicate finiteness of both metaphysical and physi- cal universe.
8.335 Ideas and Integrities, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., c1963. $7.95. Autobiographical compendium of B.F.’s half-century thought development. Popularly readable.
8.336 The Unfinished Epic of Industrialization, Jargon Press of Johnathon Williams’ Nantahala Foundation, c1963. $3.50. Obtain from World Resources Inventory Office, P.O. Box 909, Carbondale, Illinois. Paperback, 300-page epic poem, written 1940 before World War Two.
8.337 Nine Chains to the Moon, Southern Ill. Univ. Press, Arcturus Books Div., Carbondale, Ill. c1963. $2.45. Paperback, plus few hard covers in first printing. Original printing in 1938 was 5,000. Original copies now sell in the "Collectors" range at $25 to $35.
8.338 Design Science Decade, four volumes, $5 each or bound in one at $20, plus postage. Sold by World Resources Inventory Office, P.O. Box 909, Carbondale, Ill. Library discount 30% student discount 65%. (Vol. I: "Inventory of World Resources, Human Trends and Needs", by R.B. Fuller; Vol. II: "The Design Initiative", by R.B. Fuller; Vol. III: "Comprehensive Thinking", by R.B. Fuller; Vol. IV: "The Ten Year Program", by John McHale).
8.339 BOOKS BY FULLER SOON TO BE PUBLISHED
8.340 Charles Eliot Norton 1961-62 Lectures at Harvard University. Harvard Univ. Press publ. date 19??. B. Fuller’s lectures as Harvard’s Charles Eliot Norton Prof. of Poetry in alter- nating co-professorship with Felix Candela of Mexico and Dr. Luigi Nervi, Italy. Fuller traces historical, soci-economic design initiatives.
8.341 Synergetics (formerly En/Syn Geom.) by McMillian, New York. Comprehensive, mathema- tical, rational coordinate system apparently employed by nature. Now in completed manu- script, worked on by B.F. for a quarter of a century. Co-editors: Peter Pearce, Editor, Editor-in-Chief and Co-Illustrator; Professor Arthur L. Loeb, Math-Physicist; Shoji Sadao, Architect and Co-Illustrator; Brooke Maxwell, Mathematician Editor.
8.342 What I Have Learned. Epic poem published by Saturday Review Publishing Company. November 12, 1966 in short condensed version. Long version McGraw Hill - 19??.
8.343 Naga to Eden, 50,000 B.C. to 10,000 B.C. (Publisher?) A new theoretical maritime reconstruction of pre-history. The origins of mathematics, the origins of major myths. Calvin Tomkins co-author with B.F.
8.344 The Great Pirates, Eden to Crash, 10,000 B.C. to 1929 A.D., past masters of world economic patterns. (Publisher?) The evolution of human ecology, comprehensive vs. specialization. Origins of general systems theory. Calvin Tomkins co-author with B.F.
8.345 Design Science. (Publisher ?) By means of which democratic man will become a total economic success on Earth.
8.346 OUT OF PRINT BOOKS BY BUCKMINSTER FULLER
8.347 Off-set or Xerox copies available from World Inventory Office - Box 909, Carbondale, Illinois 62901 - U.S.A.
8.348 4D, a re-publication of Fuller’s 1927 privately published (200 registered copies only) comprehensive essay on man’s evolutionary functioning in universe and its recognition and conscious support by a prime Design Science. Copies of the original now in Rare Books Division of New York Public Library and in the Rare Book Division of Southern Illinois University’s Morris Library. 200 pgs. $25. Off-set copies, including illustra- tions and critiques by pre-crash contemporaries.
8.349 Shelter Magazine, 1930-33 inclusive. Contains the intimate picture of U.S.A. at depth of Depression and at major crossroads of history. Bound copies published by B. Fuller - under the pen-name of "4D", including signed series titled "Universal Architecture" and all unsigned editorial matter, captioning, etc. Shelter Magazine named, financed and managed by B. Fuller. A few original bound sets - $100. Xerox - $50.
8.350 Plan for Industrialization of Brazil - Book by B. Fuller, published by U.S.A. Foreign Economic Administration 1944, as a consequence of President Vaga of Brazil requesting President Roosevelt for Inventory of Experiences of all U.S. engineers who took part in installation in Russia of new prototype industrial process factories, blast furnaces, re- fineries, et al, during successive 5-year plan acquisitions primarily from U.S.A. between 1928-38. Publication includes comments and suggestions of leading engineers and officers of 25 U.S.A. corporations who took part in Russian program. Book constitutes the funda- mental basis for theory of industrialization – several of its uniquely disclosed strategies have been adopted – by Brazil, but not enough to bring about economic success. Off-set or Xerox copies - $25.
8.351 World Housing. Written by B. Fuller, published by U.S.A. Foreign Economic Administra- tion, 1944. Survey of U.S.A. and World-industrialized Prefabrication and Mobil Home Activity. In potential support of U.S.A. Post-war efforts to alleviate world’s critical housing shortages. Detailed"state-of-the-art" and explicit performance per units of invested resources, time and effort of building industry capabilities. Logistical details. Xerox copies - $25.
8.352 B. Fuller’s Extended Autobiographical Sketch. Published by Buckminster Fuller Inst.-1965.
8.353 Appendix "B" 131
8.354 N.B.: All of the books listed and already published may be obtained from the Gotham Book Mart, 41 W. 47th Street, New York City, New York. If any of these are temporarily or permanently out of print, Gotham Book Mart makes a practice of advertising for second-hand copies and can usually obtain them at reasonable premiums.
8.355 LECTURES BY BUCKMINSTER FULLER
8.356 B. Fuller never makes special preparation and pre-writing of his lectures. He assumes our whole lives are fundamental preparation. He has learned to "think outloud" with large and small audiences regarding his explorations, experiments, experiences and deduced generalized theories even as we will converse intimately with one or a few beings. His discourse is frequently tape recorded and transcribed to typescript. Because aural syntax is so unlike the visual syntax, his transcripts require an average of seven re-typed re-workings. He speaks at a rate of seven thousand words per hour which requires three written words for each spoken word. This means that a two-hour lecture requires a full book-length 42,000 written words to convey the "outloud thinking" in print. This means a considerable delay in publishing and a great deal of work and expense occurs after his major discourses. Often their completion occurs after the deadline for publication by his original host.
8.357 "Prospects for Humanity" - delivered to joint session of U.S.A.-U.S.S.R. Conference in the Fourth "Dartmouth Conference" at Leningrad - U.S.S.R., July 1964.
8.358 Published serially in Saturday Review - August, September, October, 1964.
8.359 *********
8.360 ** "World Baby": The inexorable birth, adolescence and maturity of World Man. Known to society in the 1960-1965 years as the "Disturbing Impingement of Technology upon Society". The discovery that all biological development and human organisms were and are always automated and that industrialization is the externalization of the integral, anatomic automation of humanity’s metabolic regeneration processes and constitutes the world-around network of automated metabolic regeneration evolving to insure the physical success of all humanity. A lecture delivered by B. Fuller to economists and sociologists of twenty-four departments of the U.S. Government under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Labor at Brookings Institute, Washington, D.C., March 18, 1965.
8.361 Same address given to President Johnson’s Committee on Technology and "The Impact of Technological Changes on American Life" at Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., March 19. Committee members:
8.362 Garth Mangum, Secretary; Howard R. Bowen, Chairman, President of University of Iowa; Joseph A. Bierne, President Communication Workers of America; Albert J. Hayes,
8.363 President International Ass’n. of Machinists; Walter P. Reuther, President United Auto Workers; Patrick E. Haggerty, President Texas Instruments, Inc.; Philip Sporn, Retired President American Electric Power Co.; John I. Snyder, Jr., President and Chairman U.S. Industries, Inc.; Benjamin Aaron, Professor of Law and Director Inst. of Ind. Relations, University of California, Los Angeles; Daniel Bell, Chairman, Sociology Dept. Columbia Univ.; Edwin Land, President Polaroid Corp.; Robert H. Ryan, President Regional Industrial Development Corp. of Southwestern Pennsylvania; Whitney Young, Executive Director National Urban League; Anna Rosenberg Hoffman, Public and Industrial Relations Consultant; and, Robert M. Solow, Professor of Economics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This committee, appointed by President Johnson and confirmed by U.S. Senate, met frequently for two years before making fundamental economic reform recommendations to the President in 1966.
8.364 *********
8.365 "Mathematics: Basic Agent of Change" World Conference at the University of Hawaii on "Frontiers of Knowledge" and "Impact of Mathematics on Humanities". B.F. mms. too late for inclusion in formal printing on conference - to be available only as part of his book "Synergetics" to be published by McMillian.
8.366 *********
8.367 Lecture by B. Fuller to Teacher’s College - Horace Mann Hall, Columbia University, "The Good Life, Education and the City", as a component lecture in series on "Dynamics of Contemporary Urban Life".
8.368 To be published by Columbia University Press, 1966-1967?
8.369 *********
8.370 ** American Institute of Planners Annual Congress, St. Louis, Missouri. October 1965 - Keynote Address by B. Fuller.
8.371 Published in St. Louis newspapers and in the Journal of American Institute of Planners, April, 1966.
8.372 *********
8.373 Appendix "B"
8.374 ** Industrial Engineers and Management Conference under auspices of Southern Illinois University, delivered at Edwardsville Campus, East St. Louis, Illinois, November, 1965.
8.375 Published as an article "Domed Over Cities", in St. Louis Post-Dispatch, November, 1965.
8.376 **********
8.377 ** B. F. to World Architectural Students, at Palais Gare D’Orsay under auspices of International Union of Architects during their VIII biennial World Congress at Paris, France, July 1965 - "Utopia or Oblivion".
8.378 Published in four media including Delos Symposium Essays and in "The Iowa Architect", 1965 and Journal of American Institute of Planners.
8.379 **********
8.380 ** Conference of Art Educators and Artists at New York University, Loeb Center, under auspices of National Science Foundation in search for fundamentals of educational detection of creativity in students. "Dead End of Non-Conceptual Science".
8.381 Published in book form, paperback, 8 1/2 x 11 inches, under direction of Dean Conant, Department of Fine Arts, New York University and U.S. National Science Foundation Grant, 1965.
8.382 **********
8.383 ** Both the Keynote and Summary lectures delivered by B. Fuller to the "Vision ’65" World Conference of Communication Arts at Southern Illinois University, October 1965. Subject: "The Totality of Experience Propagated by the Expansive Contractive Complementarity of Physical Entropy and Metaphysical Anti-Entropy."
8.384 Published in the 1966 Spring Quarterly of THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR, the national Phi Beta Kappa magazine.
8.385 **********
8.386 ** B. Fuller lectures on "Comprehensivity" to the National Headquarters Staff of the American Association of University Women at Washington, D. C., Winter 1964.
8.387 Published in the A. A. U. W. National Spring Quarterly, 1965.
8.388 **********
8.389 134 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 5
8.390 ** U.S.A. Music Educators’ National Conference, Washington, D.C. B. Fuller’s Keynote Address, auspices National Educational Administration and National Science Foundation.
8.391 To be published as paperback book by the U.S. Office of Education. Was published in two parts in National Music Educators’ Journal, Subject: "Music, Science and Creativity". April-May and June-July issues.
8.392 **********
8.393 The eight double starred items, shown above **, are to be published as an integrated collection in paperback by Bantam Books - 1967.