1 World Literacy re World Problems

1   World Literacy re World Problems

2.1Phase 1. "World Industrio-Economic Literacy and its design science solution by dramatic educational tools for realization of the world resources inventory of human trends and needs, –world’s people. Together with dramatic indication of potential solution, by design science upping of the overall performance of world resource units to serve 100% instead of present 44% of humanity." (R.B. Fuller, 1964)

2.2 In a few generations man’s world has shrunk from a vast planet, whose surface was still uncompletely known and whose peoples were relatively remote strangers to one another, to a continuous neighborhood, in which no man is more than a few hours distant from all other men and on which communication between men may be instantaneous. Man-made satellites circle this neighborhood many times in one day and the repercussions of major events affecting part of the human family are swiftly felt throughout the whole world.

2.3 "It is a closed community now so interdependent that every mistake made can be exaggerated on a world scale and every opportunity seized, in corporate wisdom, can mutually benefit the whole of mankind."ź

2.4 World society’s awareness and understanding of the problems accompanying these changes has not, however, kept pace with the changes themselves. The world’s literacy regarding its major problems is still relatively inadequate. Historically accustomed to geographical remoteness and comparatively isolated autonomy, man still tends to think in these terms. His attention is most easily focused on local tensions and upheavals which are in themselves the surface manifestations of the larger problems rather than prime causes. Literacy regarding world problems lies initially with the understanding of their global nature, and with their underlying prime causes rather than local surface events.

2.5 In communicating the urgent and critical nature of the present situation, it is important to realize, also, that the main problems with which man is faced are not intrinsically new in his experience. All human history is a long record of the struggle against hunger, disease, war and ignorance. The present gravity of these familiar aspects of the human condition, and that which gives them unique urgency, is their expanded dimensions. This vastly increased scale and magnitude has been compounded, paradoxically, through man’s successful advances in science and technology which are his prime means of combating them–by shrinking the physical distance between men, he has increased the critical interdependence of all men, by making man more secure against hunger and disease he has added astronomically to the number of men, and by displaying the material results of his increased knowledge and capabilities he has created a tremendous demand by all men to share in the accumulated ’wealth’ and knowledge.

2.6 ź "World of Opportunity", Vol. 1, United Nations Report on Conference on Application of Science and Technology for Less Developed Areas, 1963.

2.7 This present imbalance in the availability of such material advances to all is the prime aspect of our recurrent global crises. The world is clearly divided into ’have’ and ’have not’ peoples–as the geographically unequal distribution of physical resources be- comes further sharpened by a correspondingly inequable distribution of the knowledge, and the technology resulting from that knowledge, which transforms the physical resources of the earth into higher standards of living for man.

2.8 The solutions to the major world problems, of food, health, education, shelter, etc., lie in this combination of knowledge and material resources–and these are, at present, mainly preoccupied in maintaining less than half of humanity at relatively high standards of living as compared to the majority of the human family. The increasing pressure of the other ’have not’ peoples to attain to such higher standards manifests itself in various ’local’ tensions and upheavals around the world. Such manifestations of unrest, tension and social upheavals, though productive of so much pain and suffering, are not then, in themselves, the main problem. They are expressive indicators of the gravity and urgency of the main problem, but this remains one whose dimensions are unlikely to be reduced by the piecemeal applications of local economic and political ameliorative solutions. The major problem is still - and requires emphatic statement and restatement - how can we render the world’s total resources adequate to the maintenance of the whole human family at advanced standards of living for all?

2.9 No simple sharing out of the world’s present physical resources would answer this requirement fully, even on an emergency basis. Though our knowledge of resource ’convertibility’ is progressing to the point where we may state that our total resources are virtually inexhaustible, our present implementation of that knowledge lags some way behind. Under current extraction and conversion rates the per capita availability of the requisite metals, for example, required to sustain the already advanced country is steadily diminishing. That the standards of these countries continue to increase despite the relative decrease in the world’s resources in-use per capita is due entirely to the indirect manner in which developing technology improves with each advance and constantly does more with less for each unit of invested resource. The way in which to render the world’s total resources adequate to the upping of living standards for the whole human family lies therefore in the conscious application of this ’more with less’ principle –with the designed application of the highest performance per pound technologies to the solution of the given problems.

2.10 Central to such comprehensively designed application of the highest technological potential to the solution of the world’s problems lies – adequate statement and restate- ment of the problems themselves, and their interrelations and priorities. Within such comprehensive statements will be found the direction of possible solutions. The stating and restating of the problems and the communication of such statements is a prerequisite for their solution. Both in stating clearly to themselves, and to the world at large, what the parameters of the various problems are the students will find that they will pro- gressively define the sequence of planning steps required for their solution.

2.11 Effective, dramatic and adequate communication of the problems and their potential solutions is, in itself, the most practical first step towards eventual successful solutions. This may be achieved by:

2.12 One, increasing awareness and understanding by the world peoples of the intrinsically global nature of their problems, less attention and energy may be diverted then to the relative ineffectiveness of ’local’ piecemeal solution attempts.

2.13 2

2.14 Two, creating an atmosphere of participation in the consciousness that the solutions to the world’s problems are within man’s own cooperative control, and that work towards their solution may be engaged upon by all men, further communication will be looked forward to, assisted and welcomed.

2.15 Such specific solutions and partial plans, as are advanced, will be severely criticized. Not only in that they come from students, but in that they attempt the confrontation of such problems on a world scale. Much as the idea of confronting similar problems on a regional scale, or national scale, was resisted until quite recently. Such criticism is a necessary evaluation procedure for any successful planning. No scheme or plan for the large-scale solution of any human problem, which is not understood, critically assessed, and accepted by society at large can be successful in any long-term sense.

2.16 How may we prepare comprehensive statements of the world problems?

2.17 Since the initiation of the world student program in 1961 the potential sources for such statements have increased enormously. In August, 1963, we produced for the program the Inventory of World Resources, Human Trends and Needs - Document One (Phase I). 1963 was an extraordinary year with regard to the publication of such world inventories, and their coincident appearance may well mark some evolutionary turning point in man’s forward progress. At least four such major surveys were published within a few months of each other:

2.18 Science and Technology for Development - United Nations Eight Volume Report on the U.N. Conference on the Application of Science and Technology for the Benefit of the Less Developed Areas.

2.19 Science and the Future of Mankind - edited by Hugo Boyko, (published by Dr. W. Junk, the Hague), the first in a series of volumes to be issued by the World Academy of Art and Science which envision the organization of a global working team to create ’an inventarium’ of all natural resources.

2.20 Technology and Economic Development - Scientific American, September, 1963. A special issue, later issued in book form, by thirteen international experts on the relationships between the advanced societies and the developing countries.

2.21 Resources in America’s Future - Hans H. Landsberg, Leonard L. Fischmann, Joseph L. Fisher, (Patterns of Requirements and Availabilities 1960-2000). Published by Resources for the Future, Inc.: Johns Hopkins Press, U.S.A. Though differing in character from the others in its specifically ’local’ concern with one nation, this very detailed inventory still contains much valuable world information.

2.22 By reviewing and compiling together such powerful statements, and the accompanying world data surveys which have been made by various other authoritative world organizations and conferences, we are now in the position to communicate successive dramatic and forceful pictures of the major global problems as the various phases of

2.23 3

2.24 our program are developed. Where such statements are inadequate for areas where accurate data is not yet obtainable, this will direct attention to the need for such data as part of the overall problem statement. The indexing and coding of such information for swift and cross-related reference will require working groups to develop efficient information storage and access systems including the use of electronic data processing systems and computer centers where these are available.

2.25 In touching upon the overall educational value of the World Design Science Decade program- it may be useful to comment briefly upon the comprehensive discipline and self-education which will be required by the student participants. In preparing such initial ’statements’ alone it will be necessary to develop an overall ’sense’ of the whole of the complex evolving ecological patterns of man in relation to the earth. This will require a sound ’generalized’ knowledge of the basic sciences–physical, chemical, biological and social–and of the ways in which these contribute to the overall concepts of human ecology and our knowledge of the earth’s ’biofilm’ within which man’s human activities are sustained. In assessing the magnitude and trending of man’s evolutionary development, the histories of the sciences, and the development of their auxiliary inventions and technologies, are important, as they give a feeling for the effects and ’frequency’ patterns of such various innovative discoveries on world society.

2.26 Designing new ways for the dramatic and effective communication of the ’state- ments of the world problems’, inventories of resources and world trend patterns, will require not only the investigation of appropriate international standards and symbols, but also the evaluation of all available mechanical and electronic recording, displaying devices, film and video-tape, etc. The design exploration and invention of such new educational tools will be a formidable exercise! The design of the appropriate structural systems for housing such tools, so as to allow of their use under many different environmental conditions will provide unique training in high advantage ’performance per pound’ technology.š

2.27 How may we go forward to prepare plans and solutions?

2.28 A useful first step may be to review the many national and international five-, ten-and twenty-year plans, etc., and large development schemes which have been prepared and put into practice in the last few decades. These will be of great value as background material to the whole program even though many are concerned with specific solutions to given local problems. Their varying priorities, successes and failures may be profitably noted.

2.29 In reviewing the various aspects of these plans in their different industrial, agricultural and socio-economic sections it will be necessary to acquire a ’working’ acquaintance with the pertinent disciplinary areas which contribute their specialized studies to each section. This, in turn, will lead to some familiarity with special prob- lems in industrial and agricultural technologies and processes, and with the necessity to maintain a constant ’file’ review of developing technological processes and inventions and their relationship to developing economies.

2.30 š The Geoscope Appendix to this chapter will give some further aspects of this part of the program. 4

2.31 Studying such plans will also give many insights into the nature of the planning process, and lead to the acquisition of the necessary planning tools.

2.32 Current literature on planning will reveal considerable emphasis on the new ’systems’ tools and various techniques for ’simulating’ large socio-economic and industrial complexes. The computer is now widely used in planning through its capacity to handle vast numbers of variable factors in swift review. It gives great flexibility in choice of plan directions and enables the planner to anticipate the measurable effects of various alternate strategies.

2.33 Attention should also be given to local and specific problems considered within the comprehensive framework of the large scale plan. For example, in studying the world transportation network there may seem a need to develop a new form of local transport for certain areas. This should be a separate study, within the whole, but should be designed so that the new local transport would also operate in any part of the world. It would be a ’generalized design solution’. This attempt to design ’generalized case examples’ to specific problems will be a useful pragmatic criterion in many areas of environmental tool design planning.ş

2.34 Much of the work in this program will probably be conducted outside the regular curriculum of the schools. It will require that the students set up their own cross disciplinary group to consult with various authorities and specialists in the university and the outside community.

2.35 In this way the program will provide an unique training situation. The students will be involved with, (a) initiating and organizing their own work group and allocating various member functions; (b) consulting with individual and authorities in the university, industry and government; (c) coordinating their work with other regional and national groups; and (d) working with other groups widely distributed around the world.

2.36 For those schools who decide to adopt the program within their curricular framework it will provide an exciting and stimulating challenge. This kind of work does provide, in effect, the new curricular orientations towards comprehensive ’generalized systems’ environment planning which are being sought by architecture and planning schools around the world.

2.37 In this section on World Literacy re World Problems it seems pertinent to include at this point some brief review of the problems themselves and their solution directions. As our primary concern, though the solution of such problems is with the raising of living standards, it will be useful to quote here the nine point living standards index suggested by the United Nations:

2.38 Health Housing Clothing Food Consumption & Nutrition Education Recreation Employment & Work Conditions Social Security Human Freedoms

2.39 ş The ’Universal Requirements Schedule’ (for dwelling) of R. B. Fuller is a useful guide here: Ref: Document Two, "The Design Initiative."

2.40 United Nations Publication, E/CN. 3/179 - E/CN. 5/299, New York, 1956.

2.41 These headings identify the major deficiency areas–the problems. Though mainly considered here in relation to the lesser developed countries, such areas of deficiency are still to be found in relative degree, even in the highly developed countries. They remain world problems. In reordering them–according to their interrelations and the bearing upon them of related deficiencies in resources, available energies, technological development, etc.–we may still note that such divisions tend to observe their basic interdependence. To state this simply–adequate food is essential to maintain health, which is also affected by the quality of shelter–all affect education and are, in turn, affected by education.

2.42 Food

2.43 As the main link in the poverty chain–malnutrition, infectious disease, infestation and low productivity–food would appear to hold prime priority. Man cannot ’live’ effectively when chronically hungry. He cannot work or study efficiently, nor reason well beyond his next meal. His resistance to disease is lowered and his whole potential as a human being is at a low ebb.

2.44 The U.N. Food and Agricultural Organization estimates that at least a third to a half of the world’s people suffer from hunger and malnutrition–more than 1,500 million people. Only about one sixth of the human family may be said to be well fed.

2.45 During the World Food Congress, June, 1963, it was stated that, "Every day of this week some 10,000 will die of malnutrition or starvation. In India alone, 50 million children will die of malnutrition in the next 10 years. More than half of the world’s three billion people live in perpetual hunger."

2.46 The comparative per capita daily consumption though sufficiently dramatic still conceals deficiencies. For example, the average person in a high standard country consumes approximately four pounds of food per day as against about one and one fourth pounds of food per person in the low standard areas; but, the former is not only higher in weight but in dietary value. The necessary protein for growth and health requires inclusion in the diet of meat, fowl, fish, eggs, milk, cheese products, etc. The high standard diet contains more than 20 per cent of such products; the low standard, less than 5 percent–in some countries it may be 85 per cent rice, deficient in protein, fats and vitamins.

2.47 The human family presently depends for its food primarily on about three per cent of the land surface which is arable and about six per cent of grass pasture land. Cultivation and other land uses, from which food is gained proceeds precariously on about nine inches of the usable topsoil and depends, mainly, on traditional methods which have changed very little through the centuries.

2.48 Though food requirements and population growth tend to be bracketed together, there is a certain confusion in doing this which may still be tied to the 19th century Malthusian view–suggesting that human population would increase beyond the limits of the earth’s capacity to sustain it, and mankind would ultimately perish. As we remarked in our first volume in the series, this view was compounded with over simplified versions of Darwin’s ’survival of the fittest’ and seemed to indicate that the ’have’ nations would increasingly look after their own, and let the less fortunate sections of the world fend for themselves. It is erroneous, not only in that the balance of man’s survival has been based rather more on eventual cooperation than on immediate competition, but in that our capacity to accommodate much larger numbers of people at increased standards of living has vastly increased in the past hundred years.

2.49 6

2.50 DAILY PROTEIN INTAKE: WORLD

2.51 Daily intake of animal protein per person

2.52 30 grams and over 15 - 30 less than 15 data not available

2.53 Some nutrition experts regard a daily intake of 15 grams of animal protein per person as the minimum requirement.

2.54 Source: Change/Challenge/Response. Office of Regional Development, Albany, N.Y. 1964.

2.55 7

2.56 It may be useful however, to include a note on population trends at this point. The world’s estimated total population is 3,230 million, of which 450 million live in the twenty or so ’high standard’ countries. In 36 years, at 2000 A.D., the U.N. estimates that world population will be more than 6,000 million. The question of population control has been of major concern for many years and various measures have been introduced with varying degrees of success. Though it is of extreme importance that such measures be continually explored, it is also worth noting that the carrying capacities of the world’s land alone has been estimated at from 5,000 million to 16,000 million people. Population control is usually advocated as priority for the lesser developed countries, yet in the high standard countries population is still on ’apparent’ increase–though too little weighting is given here to the increase in life expectancy in such countries, which means simply that more people are alive at older ages. In regard to the U. S., a recent authority states:

2.57 WORLD POPULATION GROWTH

2.58 TOTAL 5.9 billion YEAR 2000 people

2.59 TOTAL 3.3 YEAR 1965

2.60 ASIA

2.61 1900 1.5 billion

2.62 1750 750 million

2.63 Plague

2.64 1250 375 million

2.65 NORTH AMERICA U.S.S.R. EUROPE SOUTH AMERICA AFRICA

2.66 3.3 billion

2.67 354 million

2.68 353 million

2.69 527 million

2.70 624 million

2.71 768 million

2.72 1.8 billion

2.73 213 million

2.74 231 million

2.75 440 million

2.76 240 million

2.77 306 million

2.78 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 1965 2000

2.79 8

2.80

2.81 RATES OF POPULATION GROWTH BY ECONOMIC REGIONS (PROJECTED AT CURRENT GROWTH RATES)

2.82 Less Developed

2.83 Developed

2.84 1900 10 20 30 40 1950 60 70 80 90 2000

2.85 Source: Transitions. Vol. 7, No. 2, 1964.

2.86 "There is, of course, another good reason for not tying population control to food: it is that this tie eliminated from consideration rich countries - and in particular surplus countries such as ours. Our population is increasing faster than it ever has; our major nutrition problem is overweight, our major agricultural problem is our ever-mounting excess production. Does anyone seriously believe this means that we have no population problem? Our housing problems, our traffic problems, the insufficiency of the number of our hospitals, of community recreation facilities, our pollution problems are all facets of our population problem."6

2.87 In this sense population is not a major problem at all, but the provision of nutrition, increased services and overall education within society relative to the needs of population.

2.88 To return to food, it is generally agreed that we require vast increases in our world food production. Central to this is the questions of overall social and agri-industrial development. Though much is made of traditional methods, intensively used, as increasing crop yield per acre, the facts are that ’more people can be fed off an acre than on it’. In the industrialized high standard countries less than ten per cent of the labor force pro- duces more than enough for the population. No country has progressed towards adequate nutritional levels for its population, and the avoidance of recurrent famine, etc., until at least half its population has shifted from subsistence, or ’marginal surplus’, agriculture to industry. This development direction is also required not only to provide the other necessary industrialized services, e.g., transportation, communication, housing, etc., as well as food processing industries, but also to provide a more efficient agriculture. As will be discussed in the notes on housing or shelter this does necessarily mean moving people –which is the usual objection–but may be predicated on any preferred pattern of deployed or central living, which people prefer.

2.89 5 Relative to the need for ’inventories’, the U.N. World Demographic Report states that death statistics are at least 90 per cent complete for only about 36 per cent of estimated world population and among 14 per cent of world population there are no death registration records kept. UN:E/CN. G/159.

2.90 6 Jean Mayer, School of Public Health, Harvard University. "Current" magazine, December, 1964.

2.91 Another aspect of the situation at present is the destruction of food by pests– about 20 per cent of the world’s food annually. The FAO has calculated that rats, insects and fungi destroy annually some 33,000,000 tons of essential foods in storage–enough to feed, for example, the whole U.S. population for a year. In the same report, attention is also drawn to the millions of tons of food whose full utilization is prevented by disease and parasites in the human body, e.g., intestinal worms prevalent in the tropics may ’take up’ a third of the food a man ingests.

2.92 This again underlines to the extent to which the overall nutrition problem is amenable to direct scientific and technological solutions. There are also the larger solutions to be offered through the full employment of such means as new farmlands from the jungles, deserts and icecaps: the possibilities of increased yields up to 30 per cent more through fertilizers: the doubling of the world’s fish catch and the ’farming’ of the continental ocean shelves. The bio-synthesis of food products has also advanced greatly in recent years.

2.93 Most of the world’s arid land may be reclaimed by irrigation – about 200 million acres now idle could be made productive.

2.94 WORLD POPULATION ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURE*

2.95 1958 Total Population in Millions 1500 Far East

2.96 417 Europe

2.97 207 U.S.S.R.

2.98 173 U.S.A.

2.99 196 S. America

2.100 203 Africa

2.101 125 Near East

2.102 15 Oceana

2.103 0 20 40 60 80 100% Per Cent of Working Population Engaged in Agriculture

2.104 Source: Change/Challenge/Response. Office of Regional Development, Albany, N.Y. 1964.

2.105 Water

2.106 Water is not only a vital ingredient in food production, but even more critical to the daily maintenance of life itself. Ninety-seven percent of earth surface water is in the oceans, and of the remaining three percent, fresh water, much less than a quarter is directly available to man’s use. This tends to give a static picture, however, of a dynamic cycling process–as the continuously renewed sources of fresh water are drawn up as moisture from the oceans and precipitated over the land. Our use of water has been, and is, prodigally wasteful even in the face of the enormous ocean reservoirs. Overall agriculture accounts for about 50 percent of the water measurably consumed in human activity–to raise wheat for a two and one-half pound loaf of bread it takes 300 gallons, which is also the theoretical daily requirement to sustain the overall living standard for each person. Industrial use has increased consumption enormously, e.g., requiring 250 tons of water to make one ton of steel, but industrial usages tend to be less inefficient than ’household’ use relative to recycling of water, sewage disposal, pollutants, etc. Even much of the household water consumer in developed countries has already been used at least once for other industrial or domestic purposes.

2.107 EARTH’S SURFACE: Per cents of Land and Water

2.108 DRY LAND 28.3% Arable or Tree Crop 10.4% Pasture or Meadow 19.0% Land Forested 30.1% Land Used Otherwise 40.5% HYDROSPHERE 71.7%

2.109 * To further clarify land usage, the per cents shown for dry land are based on 100%.

2.110 Source: "World of Opportunity", Science and Technology for Development. Vol. 1. U.N., 1963.

2.111 Adequate water supply, both in relation to food producing and industrial use, is a grave problem even in the developed countries who not only face critical shortages because of increased usages but also due to misuse of existing sources, excessive pollution of surface water and lack of overall water ’policies’. Though the newly developing capacities in water desalinization will help solve emergency conditions, it is generally agreed that a world water policy is urgently required both for direct water use in agriculture, industry, etc., and for the development of the enormous potentials in hydroelectric power.

2.112 After the Seventh Day, Ritchie Calder, Mentor Books, c1961.

2.113 See Phase Four, "The Service Industries"

2.114 UNESCO International Hydrological Decade began January 1, 1965.

2.115 All of these solution directions underline ways of increasing and augmenting exist- ing resources through higher performance of resource investment and eventually come to the need for the design and adoption of some world ’servicing’ system for their effective implementation.

2.116 Health

2.117 Even in our cursory statement of the nutrition problem it was evident that only some kind of comprehensive confrontation would enable one to progress towards an adequate state- ment of the overall parameters of the problem. The interrelation between health and nutrition, and conversely, nutrition may depend on being healthy enough to produce enough food, or to utilize efficiently food consumed. ’Health cannot be taken for granted when about 75 per cent of the world’s inhabitants are without an adequate and safe supply of water, when 85 per cent depend on the most primitive methods for the disposal of excretia and refuse.’10

2.118 Health and the expectancy of life years are among the most markedly unbalanced factors in the relation between the ’have’ and ’have not’ areas of the world. Those living in the developed countries have seen the pattern of disease change within their own life- time and the expectancy of living rise by almost twenty years. For them, many of the most dreaded infectious diseases have almost disappeared, may be swiftly cured or are under control. For those living in lesser developed areas the picture is less pleasant. Close to 380 million are still exposed to malaria; ten million suffer from leprosy; more than four and one half are ravaged by yaws.11 Where many of these are being steadily eradicated, e.g., yaws which affected an estimated 50 million is now ’down’ to the four and one half million above, due to antibiotics–others are still spreading. Schistosomiasis, a chronic infection caused by a blood parasite, today threatens some 200 million people and has not been wholly checked. Approximately one third of the world’s population suffer ill health in one form or another; in many areas half the children still die before the age of five, largely as a result of malnutrition.12

2.119 Though the discrepancy has been emphasized between the developed and lesser deve- loped countries is, in a sense, one of difference in types of prevalent disease, with, of course, the general balance of acute ’killing’ diseases among the lesser developed. The health problem of the ’high standard’ nations reflects, in part, their population make up, with de- generative diseases high, as in the aged; and, in other ways, their present lack of ecological design in the use of the industrial complex. Many of the respiratory diseases, allergies, cancers, whose causal agencies are not completely determined, may be linked to chemical pollutants in the atmosphere; overloaded and archaic sewage and water control systems still allow of considerable microbial pollution of rivers, lakes and streams with accompanying disease. Another aspect is the reported increase in the proportion of mental illness. This has been estimated as accounting for almost 50 per cent of all hospital accommodations in England and U. S. A considerable number of such patients, e.g., in England - 21 per cent, are over sixty-five years of age. This apparent increase would tend to be explicable, on the one hand by an increase in recognition, concern and care for the mentally ill, and the pro- portion of older persons whose lack of adaptation to rapid change has engendered various stress conditions.

2.120 10Science and Technology for Development, Vol. I, U.N., c1963. 11Ibid. 12MD, January 1962.

2.121 12

2.122 MEDICAL ADVANCES

2.123 Development of Antibiotics

2.124 Mycophenolic acid Penicillin Tyrothricin Streptomycin Bacitracin Chloramphenicol Chlortetracycline Neomycin Oxytetracycline Nystatin Erythromycin Tetracycline Sarcomycin Novobiocin Oleandomycin Mitomycin Ristocetin Kanamycin Matamycin

2.125 400 300 200 100 0 antibiotics

2.126 A

2.127 Life Expectancy

2.128 Number of Major Medical Advances

2.129 World Population

2.130 2000 1000 BC AD 1000 1500 1800 1900 2000

2.131 age in years 80 60 40 20 0

2.132 number of major advances 200 150 100 50 0

2.133 population in billions 3 2 1 0

2.134 B

2.135 Source: (A) Development of Antibiotics. Dr. H. Striner. UpJohn Institute, 1963. (B) Man Plus Study. J.McHale. Southern Illinois University, 1964.

2.136 13

2.137 WORLD HEALTH FACILITIES PER POPULATION

2.138 less than 2 2-10 10-30

2.139 Physicians and Dentists per 10,000 Population

2.140 14

2.141 The consensus of the overall picture is still far from bleak. Medical science as one of the most comprehensively organized of man’s ’systems’ has made striking progress on the world scale in recent years. It has been noted, for example, that more lives have been saved from premature death in the past thirty years than have been lost in all the wars in all history.

2.142 One of the first major world medical campaigns against tuberculosis was launched on a global scale by UNRRA after World War Two. By 1951, 38 million people had received tuberculin tests, and 18 million were vaccinated providing up to 80 per cent protection. World blood transfusion services now span great areas of the globe, handling many thousands of gallons of blood and plasma annually and beginning to deal in inventories of organ transplants, eye corneas, etc. The World Health Organization now maintains an ’invisible global system’ network of epidemic and plague control checks, as well as forwarding vast programs of curative and preventive medicine in many areas and countries with its work of mapping and ’inventorying’ the world picture of man’s ’internal ecology’.

2.143 The newly developed global communication facilities, available through orbiting satellite units, will further strengthen and extend this world health network. As this develops, remotely deployed medical scientists will be able to keep in touch more directly with others through world information centers. With satellite - relayed TV images and telephone, plus possible ’print out’ facilities, a body of expert opinion on a matter of local or world urgency could be assembled in a short time and ’received’ with all appropriate data, X-rays, etc.źş One could draw upon a world research team and view findings directly, both micro and macro-scopically.

2.144 In general, man’s developed capacities to cure, control and ameliorate disease conditions, to nurture the health of man throughout a much larger life span, demonstrate enormous gains in life itself. They are advances directly attributable to the use of science and technology within medicine–as comprehensively oriented by long practice and tradition.

2.145 Education

2.146 In terms of ’world literacy re world problems’, education is both the problem and the means for solution of the problem–not only of this given area, but of most. It is the proven tool which immeasurably increases man’s overall survival capability. By increasing his capacity to understand and control his environment, it is also that which eventually determines to a large extent his degree of personal freedom. In our developing world civilization, lack of education is a form of dis-enfranchise. The illiterate individual is constrained from full participation and access to his birthright as a human being–the right of all men to man’s accumulated cultural heritage and to the ’practical’ augmentation of his living which may be afforded by access to the highest scientific and technological capability.

2.147 We may ’order’ the problem of adequate education in various ways, i.e., the need for general literacy and general education, for scientific and technical skills training and for the great range of specialized personnel required to organize our forward world development. The central world priority presently remains basic literacy: People and their developed intellectual and social competence are our prime ’natural’ resource.

2.148 źş In May, 1965, the 85 pound ’Early Bird’ satellite, hovering 22,300 miles above the Equator, allowed millions to observe a heart operation in progress.

2.149 The Director-General of UNESCO, Rene Maheu, stated in 1964 that two fifths of the adult population of the globe cannot read or write–more than 700 million people. In certain areas of the developing countries the illiteracy runs as high as 90 per cent of the total population and in many countries the female population is almost entirely illiterate. No schooling is available for only about 45 per cent of the world’s 550 million children between the ages of five and fourteen. Full access to the world communication systems, radio, TV, newspapers, etc., which are part of the education process, is also not presently available to millions around the world. According to estimates the number of illiterates is rising by 20 to 25 million persons each year.ź

2.150 The design of education devices, facilities, and systems to combat this hard core of the main problem is a formidable challenge in itself. The efforts of international bodies such an UNESCO have been very great, but they will require a vast re-examination and augmentation of the whole educational process to really come to grips with the world situation. A recent ’World Conference for an International City of Science’, (whose first priority would be to deal effectively with this problem and to set up what would be a world educational services industryź) made the following points:

2.151 1." It is increasingly evident that in the rapidly evolving countries traditional methods of instruction are of no avail. They are not intrinsically suitable for adults. Nor can they quantitatively meet the needs of children, because of the lack of suitable buildings and other equipment–this makes it necessary to consider modern methods of communication, and particularly visual media.

2.152 2. A new approach is clearly needed, through organized research and coordination. The project for an international scientific and technical complex is specifically designed to solve the urgent problems which this (present) situation leaves in suspense in all countries and which are particularly dramatic in the rapidly developing countries."

2.153 Further in discussing the priority for rapidly developing countries, this conference made certain points which concern our first phase theme and its initial emphasis on the de- sign of dramatic educational tools for communicating ’world industrio-economic’ literacy.ź

2.154 ..."In order to provide masses of individuals with a correct vision of the most important realities and to offer effectively a set of reactions appropriate to these realities, it is not indispensable to go through the whole process of teaching them reading and writing. Visual methods offer a specially valuable short-cut because they can be used flexibly and lend themselves to mass communication and the transmission of technical skills."

2.155 In defining further the function of "international scientific city", it is interesting to note also, that emphasis was placed on the order of primary research and development, design implementation and finally mass production of materials under, as underlined, the best scientific conditions of efficiency. This fits clearly with our program concept of maximal performance per unit of invested energy and resource as the key solution direction. Such high performance per pound technology is paramount in ’space’ technology which affords many practical design cases.

2.156 ź UNESCO Courier, October, 1964.

2.157 ź See later discussion: Appendix "Towards a World University"

2.158 ź See appendix on "Geoscope"

2.159 16

2.160 IMBALANCE OF OPPORTUNITIES FOR TODAYS WORLD GENERATION

2.161 (1)

2.162 Developed Regions Out of 300,000 Children Born Developing Regions 75,000 Will be born in these regions 225,000 12,000 Will be born in slums 130,000 73,500 Will live past first birthday 200,000 73,000 Will reach primary school age 194,000 71,000 Will go to primary school 100,000 72,800 Will reach secondary school age 190,000 41,000 Will go to secondary school 25,000 72,600 Will reach university age 189,000 7,500 Will go to a university 3,500 52,500 Will reach 65 years of age 102,000

2.163 NUMBER OF UNSKILLED and/or ILLITERATE PERSONS TO BE TRAINED

2.164 (2)

2.165 Years of Age 85- and over 80-85 75-80 70-75 65-70 60-65 55-60 50-55 45-50 40-45 35-40 30-35 25-30 20-25 15-20 10-15 5-10 0-5

2.166 Number of persons in millions by age groups (1960)

2.167 WORLD EDUCATION

2.168 Sources: (1) "Social Planning and Comprehensive Development". Demetrius S. Iatridis. EKISTICS, Vol 18, No. 109:409. Dec. 1964. (2) W.T. Thom Jr. World Academy of Art and Science, 1964. 17

2.169 The following example is drawn from a recent NASA report:

2.170 " The problem: the manuals, maps, star charts, emergency plans, etc. required in duplicate for the crew of the Apollo mission amount to 12,000 printed pages with a total weight of 79 pounds per kit. This involves a total weight of 158 pounds and a bulk of material, both unacceptable con- sidering mission objectives.

2.171 The solution: a package using microfilm in conjunction with a viewing screen to present the 12,000 printed pages rapidly. The package weighs three pounds and is about the size of a metropolitan telephone directory.17 "

2.172 There is within the first phase of our program, also, the recognition that we have to arouse the minds of millions of people in the world towards their capacities to solve the world’s problems–to dramatically stimulate their interest in the problems and to assist towards equipping them to contribute towards their solution.

2.173 The successful operation of the new communications satellites has placed an incredible tool for such work within the grasp of men. We are now, in a sense, all in the same ’room-sized world’ with a world-wide communications service at our disposal. Such a service may beam the world’s finest educators into the household in the most remote village or hamlet. The most sophisticated technical expertise may be made swiftly available to the most backward countries.

2.174 However, within the development of such great tools lies something of the dilemma which still faces education as a whole. Even in the advanced countries where universal education is still only about one hundred years old, the structure and content of much education has been little adjusted from its 19th century origins. Whilst great ingenuity is now being devoted to the technological development of new ’systems’ of communication channels,through which the content of education may be more efficiently conveyed, hardly any attention is being given to the content itself–to what the ’through put’ on the system is! Current academic programs, as taught, tend to lag behind changing environmental realities.

2.175 A ’cultural tradition’ is an accretion of meaningful patterns which subtend individual and group survival. When too great a gap develops between the communicated tradition and the environ reality it may make for the non-survival of the culture. If conditions are such that a changed environ reality is not ’meaningful’, and cannot be coped with, the whole culture may break down. This has been the plight of many primitive cultures faced with the ’alien’ tradition of modern technology.

2.176 Up till our own period such changes in environ reality were relatively slow, but have gained tremendous impetus in the past fifty years. "Change is now normal" - yet most of our cultural, and therefore educational, strategies are still based on the older ’static’ norm, in which change was an irregular and disturbing occurence to which the individual and culture adjusted–so attaining a further ’stable’ normality. We know now that the apparent long-term stability of previous eras was merely a much slower rate of growth and change. The ’reality’ for both individual and culture is always change–for the individual the ceaseless growth, development and decay cycles of the human organism itself, and for the larger community, the same cycle of overlapping and continuous re- generation relative to environmental change.

2.177 17 NASA Tech. Brief 65:100.30 (National Cash Register Co. subcontract). 18

2.178 It is obvious today that we can no longer think in terms of single static entities– one thing, one isolated area, one problem–but only in terms of dynamic changing processes and series of interacting ’events’. The content of our education, the bulk complexity and detail of our knowledge requires restructuring into new assimilable wholes so that it may be imparted, even at the primary levels, in terms of whole systems.

2.179 It is not only the bulk content of the knowledge within our educational system which tends to slow it down and the relatively archaic modes of imparting the knowledge, but – that we have so rarely asked the question: "What is the minimal amount of knowledge which may be necessary to manipulate a field or group of fields, and in which order should it be imparted?"

2.180 Within ’world literacy re world problems’ this ’problem’ is also included. To approach ’world’ thinking, we need to restructure our own knowledge and to create ways of thinking comprehensively about the system of knowledge.

2.181 Document Threeź in our series may be usefully referred to here–also, the appended section on "Big Alphabets" may be viewed as an exercise in the restructuring of knowledge within the ’minimal’ compass of a comprehensive and meaningful whole system.

2.182 Housing

2.183 Even in the advanced countries, housing is one of the last areas of human require- ment to come under scientific design review. Though one of man’s main ’environ tools’, it has been allowed to develop haphazardly on a combination of local historical precedent, slow accretion of craft knowledge and local climatic need.

2.184 The family dwelling still bears little relation to the current capacities or require- ment of our industrial civilization, and has nowhere reached the technical level of our other developed environmental tools. Man now produces, with ease, facilities of a similar and much greater complexity than ’house’. The automobile is one such example, weighing around two and one half tons, with approximately five thousand component parts–others would be air and ocean liners. The former is a mobile extension of the house, and the latter are virtually floating and flying houses, environment controls which routinely function under much more severe stress conditions than the ordinary house is ever re- quired to in everyday circumstances.

2.185 On the global scale this discrepancy between potential technological capacity and low achievement is marked.

2.186 ’It is estimated that over 900 million persons in Africa, Asia and Latin America are without proper housing... if, as is recommended, 30 years were taken as the target to meet the housing shortage, and the average life of a house as approximately 25 years, then annual construction needed for current deficit, necessary replacement and population growth would be nearly 22 million units. By 1975, required annual construction would be almost 28 million units. The urban areas of Africa, Asia and Latin American constituting less than 30 per cent of the total population would account for over half of the recommended construction.’ ź

2.187 źDocument Three (1965) "Comprehensive Thinking" - R. Buckminster Fuller.

2.188 źStudy of International Housing: U. S. Senate, 1963.

2.189 Estimated Annual Housing Needs in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 1960 and 1975 (In millions of dwelling units)š

2.190 Africa Asia Latin America 1960 1975 1960 1975 1960 1975

2.191 Due to population increase: 0.84 1.50 5.30 9.40 1.10 1.70

2.192 To eliminate the deficit or shortage in 30 years: .73 .73 4.80 4.80 .60 .60

2.193 To replace the stock:* 1.03 1.03 7.10 7.10 .90 .90

2.194 Total new housing needed: 2.60 3.26 17.20 21.30 2.60 3.20

2.195 *Average life of a dwelling unit is assumed to be 30 years in urban and 20 years in rural areas. The 1975 figures do not take into account increments of stock between 1960 and 1975.

2.196 In addition to the above figures, the UN estimated in 1961 that about three quarters of the world’s population lived in substandard housing. This would give a figure of roughly 2,400 million people–in terms of six-person family dwelling units, 400 million would be required.

2.197 A side light on the above picture may also be afforded by a look at emergency situations created by natural disaster. The Chilean, Iran, Yugoslav and Alaskan earth- quakes were recent examples. In the Iran disaster of 1962 some 70,000 were rendered homeless: in Skopje, Yugoslavia, 220,000 persons were without housing after the 1963 quake which destroyed 85 per cent of the city. It is significant that even with the combined efforts of all the major powers to rehouse the latter in emergency shelters, some 150,000 were still living in tents three months after the disaster.

2.198 Against the estimated deficiency in the underdeveloped nations alone, it may be salutary to examine current building capacity in one of the most industrially advanced countries, U.S.A. Of the 1.28 million units built in 1960, for example, no single builder or home manufacturer accounted for more than 5,000 units, and most erected fewer than twenty.šź

2.199 The only possible solution to world need lies in the fullest application of the highest scientific and technological resource. It is more than likely that this will occur without benefit of traditional academic architectural practice or the present craft-building industry.

2.200 In his address to the IUA "International Symposium on Architecture" in Mexico City in 1963, Buckminster Fuller particularly stressed this in stating:

2.201 20 The Population Crisis and the Use of World Resources, Vol. II, (Chapter - Housing and Population Growth, by Robert Cook, Kaval Gulhati), Publ. by WAAS, Dr. W. Junk, the Hague. 1964. Source given: UN, "World Housing Conditions and Estimated Requirements". 21 Report from Sub-Panel on Housing to the Executive Office of the President. Apr., 1963.

2.202 20

2.203 "In order to be able to put a man into space–to stay in space, not to make a few orbits–in order to have a man in effect, live continuously in outer space for weeks and months and possibly years, we have to solve scientifi- cally the problem of mastering the ecological pattern of the human being and the metabolic pattern of the human being... We are going to have to compress the total ecological domain of man from approximately a one mile radius process into a ten foot radius process... In order to be able to send that man off into space, we have to scientifically anticipate and ef- fectively service all his processes and psychological reflex requirements... In order to be able to do that, we are in effect, building a little space house. We had been used to the word ’capsule’ which has hidden from man the fact that what science is really working on is a little house; not much room to move around in, no garden of roses outside, but nonetheless, a little house with a six billion dollar mortgage... The battle to attain the moon, or protracted living upon a platform in space, has brought about a race in capital funding initiatives between Russia and the United States specifically in relation to this little house, amounting to 6 billion dollars... This staggering amount is now appropriated to hire scientists to go to work to design and produce one little sky house, the first scientific human dwelling in history..."

2.204 Against this, for example, a U.S. survey of 1963 on the advanced ’technology’ of housing pointed to the industry’s ’break-throughs’ as labor saving machinery ranging from power saws to fork lift trucks, from paint spray guns to automatic nailers! The largest producer attributes his main technological gains to wider stud placing and one coat paints!šš The medieval handcraft attitude is still only too evident–so-called ’indus- trialization’ of the present building industry has only extended towards bringing the crafts in out of the rain to produce prefabricated parts. The current furore over the application of ’systems design engineering’ and ’computerized building’ has somewhat the same flavor. The use of advanced technological concepts to put up the same basically inefficient designs more quickly! This is somewhat similar to the lack of questions as to ’through put’ on many of the newly proliferated educational ’systems’.

2.205 It is patent that the only solutions towards supplying the world need for adequate high standard housing lie with a comprehensively designed, universally operable and mass produceable facility. To consider house as an industrial ’end product’ is no longer adequate to its efficient performance. For the fullest advantage of available, and developing technologies, we require the concept of house as that of rentable facility–like the telephone–with a full service, maintenance and replacement system.šş Home ownership, in the context of our capacities and requirements, may be on a par with ’horse’ ownership in terms of our present communication and transportation systems–no longer a desired prerequisite for living and supposed basic need, but one amongst many possible alternative choices. The function of the environmental tool facility designer is to provide the maximal degrees of freedom for such alternative patterns of living.

2.206 The Ecological Context

2.207 All the problems so far discussed also have a context. As ’human’ problems they are not confined, however, only to the presently habitable surface areas of the globe.

2.208 22 The New Housing Industry, "House and Home", November, 1963.

2.209 23 For more detailed discussion of ’house’; see Phase Four ’ The Service Industry’.

2.210 21

2.211 They extend out into the atmosphere–to the degree which the activities of man have altered, and continue to alter the composition of the atmosphere.24 They extend also to the streams, rivers, lakes and oceans to the extent which man has altered these also. And they embrace the relation of the water, land and air to the extent that he has altered large areas of the earth surface–removing forests, changing vegetation cover through cultivation, redirecting and damming rivers, redistributing the metals and minerals, etc., changing the complex relations of animal population and their surroundings and even the larger cycles of evaporation, transpiration and precipitation. The global environment within which some 3,000 million humans exist has already been modified considerably by man, and we may presume that such modification will continue. When we speak of the habitable areas of the earth at this date, we are required also to take into account that men are presently experimenting successfully with the extension of living beneath the oceans, around the poles, and beyond the earth’s atmosphere.

2.212 This modification of his environment by man to his own requirements has both positive and negative aspects. Positive in that it reduces, in considerable measure, the apparent long term insolubility of certain of his present problems. If we may irrigate the deserts, begin to ’farm’ the oceans, ’interconvert’ our resources on a growing scale, and extend our environmental control capacities to living anywhere on, within or above the earth, then prognostications about ’standing room only’ in terms of population pressure, and ’global famine before the year 2000’, etc., become unreal.

2.213 There is the negative aspect, of course. So far, our modification of the earth has proceeded with little regard for the intricacy of the overall ecological balances which maintain life on earth. We have taken little heed, for example, in modifying the environment for our own use, of the disruption of the populations of animals, micro-organisms, plants, etc., with which the maintenance of our own ecological cycle is still closely interwoven. There is presently -

2.214 "nothing in untouched nature to compare with our extravagant use of energy and our failure to recycle essential materials. The leaves that fall upon the forest floor, the excreta and remains of animal life, and even the carbon dioxide exhaled in breathing pass through transformations that make them repeatedly available to sustain life, but the effluvium of cities and industrial plants, mining operations and mismanaged soil pour into streams and atmosphere. At best these wastes are often lost beyond recovery; at worse they are toxic. In any event they represent a loss of the ultimate potential of environment to sustain life and thus violate the model which has evolved through geological time. Time, space, motion, matter, the earth and the life upon–these are the phenomena whose inseparable relationship needs to be convincingly appreciated."25

2.215 24 "During the past century of industrialization....more than 400,000 million tons of carbon dioxide have been introduced into the atmosphere. The concentration in the air we breathe has been increased approximately ten per cent and of all known reserves, of coal and oil were burned the concentration would be ten times greater." Vol. I, Science and Technology for Development, UN., 1963.

2.216 25 The Perspective of Time, Paul B. Sears, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. XVIII No. 8, October, 1961.

2.217 22

2.218 We are now entering a period of delicate equilibrium relative to our continued modification of the environment. So far, we have proceeded with such modification without any clear knowledge of its overall short or long term effects. The present range and scale of modification, and those which we may anticipate as within the range of our developing capacity, are, however, now at such a point where continued unconscious and irresponsible use of the earth can be more irreparably dangerous to man than the use of the so-called deterrents with which he is so preoccupied. Within the ’literacy of world problems’ it is essential that we adopt a basic orientation towards research on the nature of man’s total environment. As medicine has patiently unravelled areas of man’s ’internal’ ecology, so must our environmental planning be firmly based on the knowledge of man’s external ecological relations. Though one may term this, ’human’ ecology, for verbal convenience, the complex life sustaining systems extend beyond man to encompass all other elements in the system–man is only our focus within the overall frame of reference. Just as the internal populations of ’flora and fauna’ are essential to our individual metabolic processing so the various levels of plant and animal life are essential to the larger ecological process.

2.219 We need also to extend the physical and biological concepts of ecology to include the social behaviors of man–as critical factors in the maintenance of his dynamic ecological balance. Nature is not only modified by human action as manifested in science and technology–through physical transformations of the earth to economic purpose–but also by those factors, less amenable to direct perception and measure, which are politic-ethical systems, education, needs for social contiguity and communication, art, religion, etc. Such ’cultural’ factors have played and will increasingly continue to play a considerable role in man’s forward evolutionary trending and its effects on the overall ecology of the earth. Though not specifically directing his remarks toward ecological requirements, L.A. White has provided a useful classification of cultural processes:-

2.220 "For our purpose, we shall distinguish three subsystems of culture, namely, technological, sociological, and ideological systems. The technological system is composed of the material, mechanical, physical, chemical instruments, together with the techniques of their use, by means of which man, as an animal species, is articulated with his natural habitat. Here we find the tools of production, the means of subsistence, the materials of shelter, the instruments of offense and defense. The sociological system is made of interpersonal relations expressed in patterns of behavior, collective as well as individual. In this category we find social, kinship, economic, ethical, political, military, ecclesiastical, occupational and professional, recreational, etc., systems. The ideological system is composed of ideas, beliefs, knowledge, expressed in articulate speech of other symbolic forms. Mythologies and theologies, legend, literature, philosophy, science, fold wisdom and common sense knowledge, make up this category."26

2.221 In seeking to employ the full spectrum of human activities as a format for ecological study, it is important that we bear centrally in mind that such studies are not concerned with ’conserving’ or ’maintaining’ and ’ideal’ steady state, in the sense of arresting or controlling developing human processes–even if this were possible! We need, however,

2.222 26 White, Leslie A., The Science of Culture: A Study of Man and Civilization, N.Y. Ferrer Straus and Co., 1949, pp364-365.

2.223 to acquire such knowledge in order to anticipate the consequence of choosing particular solutions to our various world problems–to be able to lay out alternative directions and strategies towards accepted goals.

2.224 An interesting format for such extrapolations will be found in the later chapter, Tool Evolution. In summarizing a series of articles by leading authorities on "Life in 1984", Nigel Calder presents the various factors of ’change’ in the form of a chart, and pursues each strand forward through its technical aspects, the possibilities arising from its introduction, the effects on the individual, its ’local’ social aspects, and finally its global effects. The effects of ’change’ forward may also be gauged in part from the re-examination of past changes and suggests the corresponding need to ’reconsider history (for example) in ecological terms for enrichment of our experience in making future decisions’.27

2.225 As has been stressed many times, the least predictable element in calculating man’s possible future is man himself. His future is determined, not only by what is probable and possible–but by what he determines as necessary, allowable and ultimately desirable. At present, his ability to evaluate and determine his future goals, or implement solutions to his more immediate problems, lags far behind his potentially enormous capacity to fulfill any goals he may set or any probable solutions he may propose. However, the growing com- plexity of his globally evolving and interrelated systems of social organization and their supporting technologies now force him towards such an orientation. There is a dawning realization that man will have to involve himself more and more with the design of possible alternative strategies of future world development; with the conscious design invention of social institutions and organizations which will allow him to plan and implement such for- ward strategies which appear to be both necessary and desirable for the common weal. He will have to experiment ’with new institutional and managerial methods to utilize our great knowledge, just as (he has) experimented in the laboratories to create this knowledge’.28

2.226 The World Design Science Decade program attempts to provide such an ’experimental’ framework for the designed utilization of man’s knowledge on a global scale. Though its initial impetus occurs within architectural and environmental planning, the forward develop- ment of the program will require the collaboration and support of the full spectrum of man’s skills and disciplines.

2.227 It is necessary, however, to stress its direct aim as concerned with the practical redesign of world environmental facilities, in the broadest sense, so as to render the world’s total resources now preoccupied mainly in the service of only 44 per cent of humanity adequate to the service of 100 per cent through competent scientific design and anticipatory planning.

2.228 It is necessary, within our first phase theme, to stress also that no simple share- out of present resources will satisfy this requirement. It has been estimated, for example, that to raise the living standards of all countries throughout the world to that of the present highly developed countries, it would require six times more material resources that we have presently in world use. Whether such an estimate is correct or not is irrelevant. At our present general rates of energy conversion and material extraction and usage there is no swift way in which we might so increase, and share equally, the amount of physical resources available to us. On the other hand, it is in evidence that countries presently enjoying the highest standards of living have not reached this level solely on the amount of physical

2.229 27 F. Darling, The Unity of Ecology, Address to British Association for Advancement of Science, September, 1963.

2.230 28 Michaelis, Michael, Council for American Progress, January, 1965.

2.231 24

2.232 resource available to them. Though historically they were able to initiate industrialization more quickly because of the close availability of key resources, the continuance of their rise in material standards has been due more directly to increased out-put per unit of invested energy resource. This increase in performance per pound of invested material is an inherent trend within the industrial process. As industrialization is the result of accumulated scientific knowledge applied via technological development to more efficient use of resources, so the ’principle’ of increased performance is built into the process through the feedback of measurable performance criteria – towards the continual and regenerative improvement of overall performance.

2.233 This inherent bias of technology towards increased efficiency of function, an ’organic’ trend in an inanimate process is, of course, obscured in the general pattern of obsolete ’market’ mechanisms and traditional ’economic’ evaluations of the overall function of the industrial process. Again, this is due, in part, to the operation of historical precedent–no vast gains in energy conversion or productive performance were possible in the pre-industrial era in which the prime energy converters and producers were mainly human or animal. These ’mechanical energy converters’ operated on a fixed ratio of performance to energy input which could be little improve. Gain in material ’wealth’ generally accrued by multiplying the number of such energy converters operating on larger amounts of physical material. More was used to produce more! Our present developed technological capacity allows us clearly to use less and less energy and invested materials to produce more and more.

2.234 The swiftest way, therefore, to provide for the upping of living standards throughout the world becomes in itself both the prime problem statement and its most immediate solution direction. As Buckminster Fuller states in his paper, ’Geosocial Revolution’, addressed to the world students, it is a problem which ’bears repeating a million times’. It is:

2.235 "How to triple swiftly, safely, and satisfyingly, the overall performance realizations per pound, kilowatts, and manhours of the world’s comprehensive resources. To do so will render those resources–which at present design level can support only 44 per cent of humanity–capable of supporting 100 per cent of humanity’s increasing population at higher standards of living than any human minority or single individual has ever known or dreamed of. To thus concentrate on the mastery of the physical service of man will also have its inadvertent profit increment, for to master the physical–intellectually–will bring into human intercourse a level of integrity of exploration of the metaphysical capabilities of man and the metaphysical ramifications of universe also heretofore undreamed of by man.

2.236 Science and engineering say this is eminently feasible."29

2.237 29 See Document Three (1965) "Comprehensive Thinking" by R. Buckminster Fuller, Chapter - Geosocial Revolution.

2.238 Even the physical resources themselves, the metals and minerals, become more and more interconvertible as our scientific knowledge increases. Knowledge itself becomes increasingly the only prime resource. As U Thant, Secretary General of the United Nations, has recently stated:

2.239 "The truth, the central stupendous truth, about developed countries today is that they can have–in anything but the shortest run–the kind and scale of resources they decide to have....It is no longer resources that limit decisions. It is decisions that make resources. This is the fundamental revolutionary change–perhaps the most revolutionary mankind has ever known."

2.240 26

2.241 READINGS LIST

2.242 Phase 1, World Literacy re. World Problems

2.243 The Challenge of Abundance. Robert Theobald. New York: The New American Library of World Literature, 1961.

2.244 The Challenge of Man’s Future. Harrison Brown. The Viking Press, March 1954.

2.245 A Geography of World Economy. H. Y. Boesch. Van Nostrand, Princeton, 1964.

2.246 Ideas and Integrities. R. Buckminster Fuller, Prentice-Hall, 1963.

2.247 Land Requirements for the Production of Human Food. J. Wyllie. University of London Press, 1954.

2.248 Lands for Tomorrow. L. Dudley Stamp. Indiana University Press, 1952.

2.249 Manpower Report of the President. The U. S. Department of Labor, Transmitted to the Congress, March 1964.

2.250 Modern Science & the Nature of Life. William S. Beck. Pelican Books, 1957.

2.251 Music of the Spheres. Guy Murchie. Houghton Mifflin Company, The Riverside Press, 1961.

2.252 Natural Resources & International Development. Marion Clawson (ed.). The John Hopkins Press, 1964.

2.253 Nine Chains to the Moon. R. Buckminster Fuller. Southern Illinois University Press, Arcturus Books Division, 1963.

2.254 Population Growth and the Standard of Living in Underdeveloped Countries. United Nations, Department of Social Affairs, Population Division, No. 20, New York, 1954.

2.255 Resources in America’s Future - Patterns of Requirements & Availabilities 1960 - 2000. Hans H. Landsberg, Leonard L. Fischman and Joseph L. Fisher. The John Hopkins Press, 1963.

2.256 The Road to Abundance. Jacob Rosin and Max Eastman. Roder & Company, Hutchinson House, 1955.

2.257 Science and the Future of Mankind. Hugo Boyko, (ed.). World Academy of Art and Science (WAAS) Vol. 1, Dr. W. Junk, The Hague, 1963.

2.258 Science and Resources. Henry Jarrett, (ed.). The John Hopkins Press, 1959.

2.259 The Silent Language. E. T. Hall. University of Illinois, 1960.

2.260 27

2.261 The Story of International Cooperation. James Avery Joyce. Franklin Watts, Inc., 1964.

2.262 Structure and Change. G. S. Christiansen and Paul H. Garrett. W. H. Freeman & Co., 1960.

2.263 The Tropics. F. Bourliere, and others. Knopf, 1957.

2.264 World Commerce and Governments. W. S. Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky. The Twentieth Century Fund, 1955.

2.265 World Population. Dr. Bernard Benjamin. New Scientist, No. 313, November 15, 1962.

2.266 World Population and Production: Trends and Outlook. W. S. Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky. The Twentieth Century Fund, 1953.

2.267 World Prospects for Natural Resources. Joseph L. Fisher and Neal Potter. Resources for the Future Inc.

2.268 World Trade and Investment, the Economics of Interdependence. Donald Bailey Marsh. Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1951.

2.269 The World’s Hunger. F. A. Pearson and F. A. Harper. Cornell University Press, 1945.

2.270 Ecology

2.271 Animal Ecology. S. Charles Kendeigh. Prentice-Hall, 1961.

2.272 Ecology. Eugene P. Odum. Modern Biology Series, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1963.

2.273 The Evolution of Culture. L. A. White. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.

2.274 The Forest and the Sea. Marston Bates. Random House, 1960.

2.275 Man on Earth. S. P. R. Charter. Angel Island Publications, Inc., 1962.

2.276 Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth. William L. Thomas, Jr., (ed.). The University of Chicago Press, 1956.

2.277 The Unitary Principle in Physics and Biology. L. L. Whyte. Henry Holt Co., 1949.

2.278 28

2.279 General Systems

2.280 Cybernetics. N. Wiener. Wiley, New York, 1948.

2.281 Design for a Brain. W. R. Ashby. Chapman & Hall, London, 1952.

2.282 Econometrics. Gerhard Tintner. Wiley, New York, and Chapman & Hall, London, 1952.

2.283 The Education of a Scientific Generalist. H. Bode, F. Mosteller, J. Tukey and C. Winsor. Science 109, 553, 1949.

2.284 General System Theory: A New Approach to Unity of Science. L. von Bertalanffy, C. G. Hempel, R. E. Bass and H. Jonas. Human Biology 23, 302, 1951.

2.285 General System Theory and the Vitalism-Mechanism Controversy. W. Yourgrau. Scientia (Italy) 87, 307, 1952.

2.286 Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort. G. E. Zipf. Addison-Wesley Press, 1949.

2.287 The Mathematical Theory of Communication. C. E. Shannon and W. Weaver. University of Illinois Press, 1949.

2.288 Objectives and Nature of Integrative Studies. K. F. Mather. Main Currents in Modern Thought 8, 11, 1951.

2.289 An Outline of General System Theory. L. von Bertalanffy. Brit. J. Philos. Science, 1, 139, 1950.

2.290 The Policy Sciences. D. Lerner and H. D. Lasswell (ed.). Stanford University Press, 1951.

2.291 Problems of Life. L. von Bertalanffy. Wiley, New York and Watts, London, 1952.

2.292 Science and Complexity. W. Weaver. Main Currents in Modern Thought 9, 74, 1952.

2.293 Theoretische Biologie. L. von Bertalanffy. 2 vols. Gebr. Borntraeger, Berlin, 1932 and 1942; 2nd ed., A Francke, Bern, 1951.

2.294 The Theory of Open Systems in Physics and Biology. L. von Bertalanffy. Science 111, 23, 1950.

2.295 Toward a General Theory of Growth. K. E. Boulding. Canad. J. Economics & Pol. Science 19, 326, 1953.

2.296 29

2.297 THE GEOSCOPE CONCEPT* (Appendix A)

2.298 The theme submitted to the IUA for the first two-year phase of the "World Design Science Decade" program is concerned initially with the ’literacy’ of world problems– "The design of a facility for displaying a comprehensive inventory of the world’s raw and organized resources, together with the history and trending patterns of world peoples’ movements and needs..." that is the assessment or inventory of those social, economic, and industrial trends defining world problems and their effective communication through dramatic educational tools, in such a manner as to catalyze their possible design solutions.

2.299 One such dramatic educational tool, outlined in the Fuller proposal, is the construction of a 200 ft. diameter miniature earth or Geoscope. This main display facility fabricated of light metal trussing would be correctly oriented on its polar axis in location, with basic geographic data marked accurately on its surface. Linked to an electronic computer, within which would be stored all available ’inventoried’ world data, and wired on its interior and exterior surfaces with approximately ten million variable intensity light points under computer control, this would furnish a giant spherical television screen, allowing for the flexible display of dynamic world trending patterns at variably controlled display speeds. ’Viewing the stars through the semi-transparent land masses, from the centre of such a miniature earth would powerfully locate man in his universe and its electronic display facilities would enable him to see and comprehend patterns far beyond his normal ’timing’ range... man recognizes a very limited range of motions in the spectrum of motion. He cannot see the motions of atoms, molecules, cell growth, hair or toe-nail growth; he cannot see the motion of planets, stars and galaxies; he cannot see the motions of the hands of the clock. Most of the important trends and surprise events in the life of man are invisible, inexorable motion patterns creeping up surprisingly upon him. Historical patterns too slow for the human eye and mind to comprehend such as changing geology, population growths and resource transpositions may be comprehensively introduced into the computer’s memory and acceleratingly pictured around the surface of the earth.’ź

2.300 GEOSCOPE DEVELOPMENT

2.301 Several study projects on such a Geoscope Minni-Earth facility have been carried out over the years, notably those at Cornell University in 1952, University of Minnesota in 1954-56, and at Princeton in 1960, directed by Buckminster Fuller.

2.302 At Cornell a 20 ft. diameter miniature Earth was constructed on which continental land masses were marked with transparent copper screen mounted on the openwork geodesic grid of the sphere. The latter could be entered and observations could be made through the surface of the Geoscope from its exact centre. The sphere was polarly oriented to the axis of the Earth and rotated so that Ithaca, New York, on the surface (corresponding to its real earth location) was in zenith. It was then locked in place to prevent any further relative motion. In use, this Cornell facility gave immediately certain direct sensations of true earth/universe relations–by observing the movements of the sun and stars against the grid lines relative to the polar constants the rotation of the Earth

2.303 ź Document One (1963), Appendix B: R. B. Fuller. *(The Geoscope Concept is reprinted and adapted from ’The Geoscope - J. McHale: ’Architectural Design’. London, December 1964.) 30

2.304 GEOSCOPE PROJECTS

2.305 ’The Minni-Earth or Geoscope’ may be located as a major world city’s focal point, analogous to the Eiffel Tower, or as a continuing feature of World Olympic Gamesor as in sketch, be suspended from masts mounted on the ring of rocks in midstream of New York City’s East quarter, a mile distant from the East face of the UN Building to serve as a constant con- fronter, of all nations’ representatives, of the inte- grating patterns, both expected and unexpected occurring around the face of man’s constantly shrink- ing ’one town world’ (Fuller)

2.306 Geoscope at Cornell University School of Architecture, 1952. 20ft diameter

2.307 Geoscope at University of Minnesota, School of Archi- tecture, 1954. R. B. Fuller in foreground

2.308 Nottingham Geoscope: 20ft. diameter geodesic sphere with world map on plastic skin.

2.309 31

2.310 could be vividly experienced. The location of the sun at zenith at any point on the globe surface, where viewing was not blocked by the real Earth, could be verified accurately. The Princeton, 1960 Geoscope utilized data compiled during the several University of Minnesota studies in transferring the Fuller Dymaxion Map projection with detailed accuracy on a six foot geodesic sphere. By coordinating the triangulated plane surfaces of the map with the spherical geodesic this projection may give minimally distorted world geographical features at any scale. The six foot globe so constructed was probably the most accurate globe of this size ever made. Other big globes are usually more or less approximate enlargements of smaller standard units using spherical ’square’ coordinates with relative distortion progressively enlarged in their land mass projections. The ratio of the Princeton Minni-Earth to real Earth was 1:7,000,000, thus rivers, shore-lines, and small lakes could be shown in the fine details usually only found in small area maps.

2.311 Research into the Geoscope/Minni-Earth concept presently being conducted through the World Resources Inventory at Southern Illinois University, and the Buckminster Fuller Institute, ranges through the investigation of various multi-projection and panel wiring devices, such as multi-slide and 8 mm cinema units for the smaller scale systems and the incorporation of triangular-faced TV tubes now available with data storage and display through videotape. The system for the 200 ft. Geoscope, outlined above, has been fully analyzed and design schedules and costs for its complete production have been compiled.š

2.312 THE NOTTINGHAM GEOSCOPE

2.313 This unit, constructed at the Nottingham School of Architecture, England, is basically a 20 ft. diameter geodesic sphere of 1/2 in. diameter aluminum tube bolted together at the triangle vertices. This globe is covered with a thick plastic (polythene) film on which a world map is painted. Information on the global distribution of world resources and facilities has been plotted on this map using a symbol code for the various representations, e.g.:

2.314 1. Man shape to indicate one million population 2. Desk to represent educational data 3. Blackboard symbol to give world literacy pattern 4. Rail trucks to represent cement, iron, and steel production 5. An ear of wheat representing food gives number of calories per capita per day world picture, etc.

2.315 Numerical differences are shown by the size difference in the symbols. Color differences are also used when the same symbol stands for different materials (cement, iron, steel) or for different institutions (primary, secondary, higher education). When installed it is planned to leave a panel of the map insecured so that people can view the globe from the inside.

2.316 This project, prepared and coordinated by the School of Architecture, University of Nottingham, England, is a prime example of the type of collaborative design team work and planning which the continuing world program requires.

2.317 š Such developments, including those specifically described in this article, are presently related to Fuller U.S. patent No. 2,393,676 and others pending.

2.318 The Nottingham School student group, working closely with BASA (British Architectural Students Association), acted as main center for construction of the geo-scope and student groups in the schools listed below provided various world data compilations for plotting on the globe:

2.319 Bartlett School of Architecture (London) - Population Bristol School of Architecture - Cement, Iron, Steel production Liverpool School of Architecture - Literacy Hull School of Architecture - Educational Facilities Cheltenham School of Architecture - Food Edinburgh School of Architecture - Health Cardiff School of Architecture - Land Usage

2.320 All of this work was extra-curricular and was carried out through the initiative and commitment of the various individual students who formed the working groups. Mention should be made here also of the World Design project work at the Architectural Association School, London, which though not concerned specifically with the Geoscope, was coordinated within the general framework of the English students’ World Design Science Decade Program.

2.321 THE COLORADO GEOSCOPE

2.322 This study, whose description follows, was carried out under the direction of the author at the School of Architecture, University of Colorado, in April, 1964. The project was designed to investigate the possibility of such intermediate Geoscope models for use in education, or as part of a generalized information tool system for the storage and display of world data, operable at the individual or group research level. Such smaller scale devices may function autonomously or could be remotely linked to the centralized large-scale Geoscope which Fuller outlines.

2.323 The specific aim of the Colorado project, then, was to develop a global model which would allow for the display and storage of information on world resources, human trends, major geophysical cycles, etc., in a form which would enable their comprehensive and dynamic relationships to be viewed. Such a model should also serve as a flexible storage device for such data so as to provide swift review and demonstration of world trending patterns. It was further specified that the model should be of minimal weight and easily demountable for storage and transport. As noted on the preceding page this should be a fully operable unit; but so designed as to furnish a material basis and theoretical direction for further research. Attention was drawn to the requirement of operation at different control levels–manual, mechanical, and electronic–and that the prototype be so constructed as to accommodate any such further technical modifications.

2.324 Icosahedron Unit

2.325 The Icosahedral form was chosen at this stage as more suitable in time available and to the scale of this particular model for use within restricted school or conference room dimensions. This allowed also direct transference of the Fuller Dymaxion Air Ocean Map projection into the twenty flat planes of the icosahedron for three dimensional or planar viewing.

2.326 The six foot icosa is made of a light steel tube frame onto which are clipped the double transparent face panels. These face panel units of two triangular Plexiglass

2.327 33

2.328 PLANAR WALL UNIT

2.329 (above) Drawing of Icosahedral unit data planes being viewed from within and planar wall unit in background.

2.330 Geoscope, planar wall unit, University of Colorado, 1965. Data display: World Population.

2.331 View through tetrahedral unit

2.332 Geoscope, University of Colorado, 1964. Close up view through various data plane levelsfrom atmospheric wind patterns on the upper level, to air and sea routes and principal cities on the earth plane, and below earth level mineral resources data

2.333 34

2.334 sheets hinged together form the basic storage and display unit, each of which may be individually removed or opened for insertion of data (see below). One sheet of the double plane is inscribed in black line with the main world geographical data, i.e., continental land mass outlines, longitude and latitude lines, etc., from the Fuller Projection, the other is left clear.

2.335 Additional data may then be stored and presented on thin film (Mylar) transparencies inserted within these hinged panel units. In this way, a considerable amount of information may be overlayed and compared on, and through, the earth surface plane. Such data inserts may also be ’roughs’ drawn on any suitable material, i.e., tracing paper. Appropriate erasable markers may also be used on the surface sheet of the panel units to sketch or mark-up various relationships or configurations.

2.336 In addition to this earth surface double panel unit, a vertical storage and display unit was also developed, and one such unit was incorporated in the prototype. This unit was based on a set of telescoping tubes which connect at the centre of the icosahedron and run through the frame hubs thus providing a tetrahedral frame upon which vertical data planes may be attached (based on the double hinged panel principle) and also allows further data planes to be inserted horizontal to, but above and below, the main earth surface plane. The telescoping members extend outwardly from the earth surface hubs and provide for the data planes above the earth surface. Such members may obviously have further extension tubes added, and allow for example scaled staellite tracks to be flexibly located around the ’globe’.

2.337 An important feature of this combined vertical and horizontal plane capacity is that it allows for the direct viewing and comparison of many different areas of information. Information on the overall energy exchange cycles above and below the earth’s surface may be related to atmospheric layers, temperatures, pressures, earth geological strata, etc. Appropriate cross-sections may be introduced at any level on these planes. Where necessary such cross-sections could be modelled in three dimensions, for specialized studies in geomorphology, hydrology, etc., or ocean floor mapping.

2.338 The whole system, as described above, is mounted on a stand so that the user may easily view and manipulate data from both inside and outside the main ’globe’, which revolves freely on a circular track under manual control. Similar member and hub units are used in the stand so the complete unit may be economically demounted and packaged for transport with swift reassembly.

2.339 Planar Wall Unit

2.340 An accompanying wall frame, free-standing, planar display system was also designed, and completed in 1965. This used a similar member/hub construction and the same panel size as the icosahedron.

2.341 The same type of detachable hinged panel is used in both units so that data sheets may be transferred from one to the other. The planar unit also allows for storage of such data sheets.

2.342 Dimensions of the planar unit are as follows: Nine foot high; sixteen feet long; thirty inches deep. The frame is of 1/2 inch steel tubing with wire tension cables to complete the truss system. Hubs are two inches in diameter steel washers. The trans- parent triangular display panels are made of two sheets of 1/10 inch plexiglass, and the white faced fill-in panels are 1/20 inch polyester sheet.

2.343 35

2.344 Typical tetrahedral data display

2.345 CONSOLIDATED EARTH ATMOSPHERE SUN BALANCE SHEET

2.346 POPULATION DATA OF MAN, ANIMAL, & PLANT

2.347 EXOSPHERE IONOSPHERE MESOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE TROPOSPHERE BIOSPHERE

2.348 METEORS COSMIC RAYS

2.349 (0.04 Btu per hr per sq ft) USED TO EVAPORATE WATER & ACTIVATE WINDS

2.350 (70 Btu per hr per sq ft) ABSORBED AND RERADIATED BY LAND

2.351 (440 Btu per hr per sq ft) RECEIVED FROM SUN

2.352 (180 Btu per hr per sq ft) ABSORBED & RERADIATED BY ALL WATER SURFACES

2.353 (190 Btu per hr per sq ft) REFLECTED BY ATMOSPHERE TO OUTER SPACE

2.354 1 BTU/sq. in. per year

2.355 SEA LEVEL

2.356 ENERGY FLOW FROM EARTH

2.357 0.02 Btu 0.5 Btu 0.25 Btu 0.23 Btu ? Btu ? Btu ? Btu ? Btu

2.358 EARTH CRUST ZONES

2.359 HYDROSPHERE ROCKS METAMORPHIC GRANITE BASALT OUTER CORE INNER CORE

2.360 1,000 MILE ATMOS- PHERIC LEVEL

2.361 4,000 MILE LITHO- SPHERIC GEOLOGICAL LEVEL

2.362 VERTICAL DATA PLANE

2.363 CONTINENTAL OUTLINES WITH LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE GRID

2.364 SEA LEVEL TRANSPARENT DATA INSERT PLANE

2.365 LITHOSPHERE DATA SCREEN

2.366 ATMOSPHERE DATA SCREEN

2.367 Typical vertical data plane, running from 1000 miles atmospheric height into the earth’s crust

2.368 QUICKLY ALTERABLE AND UPDATEABLE ACETATE OR PAPER TRANSPARENT INSERT

2.369 Typical hinged display panel and data insert

2.370 SAMPLE OVERLAY WITH INDICATED AIR AND SEA TRANSPORTATION ROUTES

2.371 HINGED PLEXIGLAS

2.372 DATA OVERLAY INDEX TABS

2.373 36

2.374 There are 20 map surface data panels on the unit matching up to the 20 faces of icosa. The depth of the unit was determined -

2.375 1) by that necessary to accommodate the tetrahedral insert (to the earth centre) which is shown on the icosa unit, and to give storage space for data insert sheets; and

2.376 2) to allow for wiring, projection and other devices for ’dynamic’ display purposes.

2.377 The approximate weight of both icosa and planar unit crated together for air ship- ment is approximately 500 pounds.

2.378 In order to provide for flexible and swift assembly and use of the hinged panel units, each unit has its own reference number to that portion of the earth’s surface which it represents. Each panel edge then has two numbers; one is the panel identification number as above, the other is the panel to be placed adjacent to the edge so identified. To establish a system for coding and reference of the data inserts each sheet has one edge marked with the panel edge code plus content references and legend giving translation of symbols used. Such insert sheets may then, if necessary, be stored in a hinging file and indexed according to this edge marking for access and retrieval. All data planes were similarly edge indexed.

2.379 Where edge marking may be critical in obscuring detail as at this prototype scale it may be in the form of a hinged flap. This would also allow the code punching such flaps for rapid random access–as in Keysort or Hollerith Systems.

2.380 In further development of this aspect of data control within the system a triangulated reference grid may be employed which would permit correlation between panel data and electronic data processing facilities. By using such a reference grid in relation to the vertical and horizontal cross-section panels any point above, on, or below the earth’s surface could be allocated suitable coordinates and data stored on such coordinate code references.

2.381 Other possibilities include microfilming of separate data inserts, either singly or in various overlaid arrays, and the swift assembly of smaller scale ’atases’ through the print-out facility. The latter device would allow for swift communication of data in immediately usable form between relatively remote centres using the Geoscope system.

2.382 Such printed-out data might also be employed as the successive animation sections for the filming of videotape or cinefilm of dynamic trends in accelerated or decelerated review. One such film, for example, has been made under the direction of the author. Using a standard Dymaxion map outline and one dot on this as representing a one million person increment, the growth of world population was charted on the earth surface from 4000 BC to the present. The film was designed within 100 ft. standard length and so ran off 6000 years of population growth in approximately three minutes–30 years per second. This was correlated with main historical events and provided a most dramatic picture of what one may term a ’dynamic trend’. The idea of using standard length and standard methods throughout was that many such documents could be made independently, at various geographically remote centres, of many such trending patterns and be joined together for showing or combined in processing so that such patterns could be related together.

2.383 The forward design schedule of this Colorado model, as mentioned above, allows for its further refinement technically, and its use as a basis for the investigation of

2.384 37

2.385 various mechanical and electronic display and storage systems. From the interest expressed in the University presentation and demonstration of the model, it is planned that such developments may be conducted in collaboration with other departments thus providing a focus for interdisciplinary work at various study levels.

2.386 It is also evident that such Geoscope models may function as nuclei for world in- formation centres in universities, schools, libraries, museums, and communities. Within such centres may also be housed, in easily viewable display forms, chartings, and graphic compilations of all such information as would afford the viewer a swift and comprehensive awareness of man in universe. He may thus be able to review and project all past historical and future trending patterns of the human society on earth–the history of invention, of scientific and technological developments, world population and resources, social and cultural trends, the circulation of raw, processed, and scrap materials, etc. These would be conveyed in such a manner as to communicate the sense of their interrelations within various overall ecological development.

2.387 No such centres for direct experience and participation in the ’global navigation’ of world society have yet been directly developed, though the function exists embryonically in the world’s universities, libraries, and institutes, and in its international cooperative agencies and communications networks.

2.388 Such facilities, once initiated, might eventually evolve into the beginnings of ’world’ universities in the truest sense. The activities necessary for the design, maintenance, servicing, and processing of such facilities would certainly attract and provide for the education and training of world educators of a unique kind. Their necessary grasp of the fundamentally integral patterns of man’s accumulated knowledge would enable them to communicate and engender that awareness, or attainment, of a truly ’world view’ which is now essential, not only to the further development of human society, but to its basic survival.

2.389 N.B. As the furtherance of the World Design Science Decade program rests on individual initiative it is important to identify such individual contributions of personal time and energy whenever possible. The Colorado Geoscope team at the School of Architecture, University of Colorado, is listed below:

2.390 NAME YEAR Bruce Johnston 5th Ed Tower 5th Tim Buck 4th Coordinating Faculty Member Steve Day 4th Professor C. A. Briggs Wally Kroner 4th Gage Davis 3rd Peter Heinemann 3rd John Orcutt 3rd Jay Parker 3rd Eric Klock 2nd Jerry Smart 2nd Steve Wisenbaker 2nd Cal Papritz (Geography Dept. Graduate)

2.391 (No complete listing is available at the time of writing of those individuals responsible for the Nottingham Geoscope and the collaborative work in the various U.K schools.) 38

2.392 THE BIG ALPHABETS (Appendix B)

2.393 The growth of man’s knowledge, and his structuring of that knowledge into conceptual tools for the understanding and control of his environment, has tended to follow a cyclical pattern of analysis and synthesis–of differentiation and integration. Both are interactive aspects of the whole process, of man’s concern with the understanding of the nature of his world.

2.394 In science, the discovery of new knowledge is usually described as proceeding from the elucidation of detailed pieces of information, about particular aspects of experience, to their organization and verification in terms of new conceptual hypotheses about larger areas of experience. But, even in science, this method has been somewhat idealized as occurring in such a specifically linear sequence. In many cases, the sequence may be inverted. The discovery of significant detail may attend and be preceded by, what is usually referred to as, an ’intuitive’ apprehension of a whole process. Both parts of the cycle obviously feed back upon one another in a way which we do not as yet fully understand.

2.395 The trend of scientific development seems presently to favor integration, as evidenced by the fusion of many existing differentiated disciplines into new relationships, i.e., bio-chemistry, psycho-biology, bio-physics, etc.

2.396 It appears as if our accumulation of detailed parts-knowledge, due to vastly increased investment in scientific research–has reached a stage when further elucidation of data must be paced, more and more, by the conscious integration of such data into meaningful wholes. This may be necessary simply in order to restore more communication within science itself as a collaborative enterprise. As many of the routine tasks in research, previously performed by human specialists, are increasingly off-loaded through computer assistance, this may occur naturally.

2.397 Relative to education, or ’literacy’ regarding our present world, it seems essential that we seek to apprehend and communicate our knowledge much more in terms of the larger whole systems. In terms of primary integrative concepts embracing large areas of knowledge:-

2.398 "Concepts are discoveries as well as–indeed more than–inventions....and unifying our thoughts over a vast area of facts....enable certain aspects of the enormous complexity of the world to be handled by men’s minds."ź

2.399 In this appendix I have included some of the basic conceptual tools which may be selected from the store of man’s present knowledge.š Its title, "The Big Alphabets" was used by the distinguished astronomer, Harlow Shapley, to describe some of the main configurations of knowledge which man has put together; his listing is as follows:

2.400 A. Elementary and Fundamental: The Letters Ordinal Numbers Calendars Terrestrial and Star Maps

2.401 ź "The Two Aspects of Science", Sir George Thompson: Science, Vol. 132, Oct. 1960.

2.402 š See "Omni-Directional Halo" Chapter one and two, Doc. Three, "Comprehensive Thinking" 1965, R. B. Fuller - in the present World Design Science Decade series. 39

2.403 B. The Four Major Summaries:

2.404 Energy - The Electro Magnetic Spectrum Matter - The Periodic Table of the Elements Time - The Geological Timetable of the Earth Space - The Series of ’Material’ Organizations

2.405 The following pages contain material on the Four Major Summaries in the above order, plus a diagram on the concept of the Earth Biosphere. These summaries, biosphere, etc., may be usefully related to the charts of the ’Relative Abundance of the Elements– in Universe, Earth and Man’, which were included in our first document in this series; also, to the chronology of the acquisition of the atomic elements (Profile of the Industrial Revolution) in Documents Two and Three.

2.406 It is hoped that they may provide an example of the communication of knowledge in a compact and comprehensively oriented manner. As stated earlier:-

2.407 "Time, space, motion, matter, the earth and the life upon it, are the phenomena whose inseparable relationship needs to be convincingly appreciated."ş

2.408 The following conceptual tools are a minimal set of pattern relationships which may enable one to appreciate the overall systematic and orderly behaviors of the earth environment and the universe of which it forms a part. Man is represented here, ’invisibly’, as the coordinating intelligence from whose accumulated and ordered universal experience these maps are drawn.

2.409 ş The Perspective of Time, Paul B. Sears, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. XVIII, No. 8, October, 1961.

2.410 40

2.411 THE BIG ALPHABETS.

2.412 Charts of the Four Major Summaries, and the Biosphere.

2.413 MAN’S INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE: TIME, SPACE, ENERGY, AND ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

2.414 P 3x10 Years 1690 Years 3.85 Days 136 Days 60 Minutes VII. Mind

2.415 VI. Vital Cycles P Tribes Insects National Yeast Civilizations Animals Splitting of Cells

2.416 P Earth Mechanical Vibrations Moon Balances Tides Water Waves Weather Winds V. Gravitational Vibrations

2.417 IV. Binding Energies Thermodynamic & Elastic Vibrations Vibrations of Atoms in Molecules E Thermal Agitation One Second Pendulum Molecular Binding E Partial Valences Molecular Rotation

2.418 Intermost Electron Valence Electron Television Telegraph Periodic Table Ultra Violet Carrier Current Surface Heating One Second Period Gamma Rays Visible Cosmic Rays Hard-X-Ray-Soft Audio Frequency DC Motor III. Electro-Magnetic Waves Near Infra Far Red Radio Power Lines

2.419 II. Nuclear Vibrations Absorptions & Emanations Energy Levels Ionization Chamber Electroscope Crystal Detectors Cloud Chamber Bolometers and Thermocouples Photocells Vacuum Tubes Photography Magnetic Disturbances Due to Sun Spots, etc. E Nuclear Binding Fluorescent Screen U 238

2.420 Alpha Proton Meson Positron Mass Equivalents of C+ or C- Energy Neutrino or Charge Energy I. DeBroglie Particle Waves Cosmic Rays U 235 100,000 volt electrons radium part deuteron beam electron microscope slow neutron beams

2.421 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35

2.422 E = Energy in Calories Per Cycle = Frequency in Cycles Per Second P = Period in Seconds Per Cycle = Wave Length in Meters E = Energy in Electron Volts Per Particle

2.423 Source: Time: Its Breadth and Depth in Biological Rhythms. John J. Grebe. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 98, Article 4, Oct 30, 1962.

2.424 42

2.425 FREQUENCY (cycles per second) 1 10 100 1,000 10 10 10 10 10 10 10ź ELECTRICITY COMMUNICATION BANDS VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SNF Standard Radio Broadcasts AM FM Coaxial Short Television Cable Wave RADIO ASTRONOMY Radar Bands P L S X K Micro Waves SOUND SPECTRUM EXPANDED AUDIBLE INFRASONIC Speech ULTRASONIC Piano Key Board 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 FREQUENCY (cycles per second)

2.426 (The chart to the left). ’Everything in nature has motion–not just casual motion but motion that is rhythmic and unending, following a precise pattern or cycle. If we set a pendulum in motion it is easy to count the number of strokes, or cycles, in a given period of time. Similarly it is quite easy to count and time such natural cycles of natural phenomena become greatly faster or slower, or as the objects being studied become impossible to observe with man’s unaided senses, then we must find other means of observing or calculating these cycles. Much of all basic scientific knowledge can be encompassed within what man has learned about these cycles of motion. The darker shaded area on the chart represents the frequencies observable with man’s unaided senses. The lighter shaded area represents the total observable up to the present day through such tools as the microscope, the telescope and all of scientific devices. Near the periphery are the cycles of the infinitesimal particles within the nucleus whose motion is so rapid that their vibrations per second are reckoned up to 10 to the 23rd power, or, in more unwieldy figures, would be 1 followed by 23 ciphers. Near the center are the movements of stars and planets, some of whose movements are so slow that they may take millions of years for a single cycle. Those portions of the various scales covering unshaded areas represent the unexplored, to-be-explored frontiers of basic science.’ (John J. Grebe: see ref. opp.)

2.427 Sources: (1) "Calif"

2.428 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 10źš 10źş 10ź 10ź 10ź 10ź 10ź 10ź 10š 10šź 10šš PRESENT COMMUNICATION GAP LASER INFRARED ULTRAVIOLET X-RAYS GAMMA RAYS Cosmic Rays visible light EXPANDED 1.0 Red Orange Yellow White Blue Violet Purple 1.0 .5 .5 0 0 4.3Œ10 5Œ10 6Œ10 7Œ10 FREQUENCY (megacycles per second) Relative Visual Sensitivity

2.429 RELATIONSHIP OF MAN TO ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

2.430 (The chart above). The visual pattern recognition capacity of the eye lens and correlated brain function has been progressively extended and amplified through the simple magnifying lens to the microscope and telescope, through the camera lucida and obscura to the photographic and television camera, and towards sophisticated systems which record, amplify and relate complex visual and aural patterns of great magnitude This development also encompasses the ways in which man has widened his ’sensorial’ monitoring of the electro-magnetic spectrum through instrumentation. He can now ’see’ into the infra-red, ultra-violet and Xray frequencies, ’hear’ in the radio frequencies, and, may more delicately ’feel’ through electronic metering than with his most sensitive skin area.

2.431 ency Spectra Chart". Douglas Aircraft Co. (2) "New Techniques of Communication". F.J.D. Taylor. , 1962. Discovery Magazine, Vol XXV. No. 10, Oct. 1964.

2.432 43

2.433 Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals

2.434 I A H 1 Hydrogen

2.435 Li 3 Lithium

2.436 Na 11 Sodium

2.437 K 19 Potassium

2.438 Rb 37 Rubidium

2.439 Cs 55 Cesium

2.440 Fr 87 Francium

2.441 II A Be 4 Beryllium

2.442 Mg 12 Magnesium

2.443 Ca 20 Calcium

2.444 Sr 38 Strontium

2.445 Ba 56 Barium

2.446 Ra 88 Radium

2.447 First Transition Metals

2.448 III B Sc 21 Scandium

2.449 Y 39 Yttrium

2.450 Rare Earth Metals

2.451 Actinide Metals

2.452 IV B Ti 22 Titanium

2.453 Zr 40 Zirconium

2.454 Hf 72 Hafnium

2.455 La 57 Lanthanum

2.456 Ac 89 Actinium

2.457 V B V 23 Vanadium

2.458 Nb 41 Niobium

2.459 Ta 73 Tantalum

2.460 Ce 58 Cerium

2.461 Th 90 Thorium

2.462 VI B Cr 24 Chromium

2.463 Mo 42 Molybdenum

2.464 W 74 Tungsten

2.465 Pr 59 Praseodymium

2.466 Pa 91 Protactinium

2.467 VII B Mn 25 Manganese

2.468 Tc 43 Technetium

2.469 Re 75 Rhenium

2.470 Nd 60 Neodymium

2.471 U 92 Uranium

2.472 The Triads (Second Transition Metals)

2.473 VIII B Fe 26 Iron

2.474 Ru 44 Ruthenium

2.475 Os 76 Osmium

2.476 Pm 61 Promethium

2.477 Np 93 Neptunium

2.478 Co 27 Cobalt

2.479 Rh 45 Rhodium

2.480 Ir 77 Iridium

2.481 Sm 62 Samarium

2.482 Pu 94 Plutonium

2.483 Ni 28 Nickel

2.484 Pd 46 Palladium

2.485 Pt 78 Platinum

2.486 Eu 63 Europium

2.487 Am 95 Americium

2.488 Third Transition Metals

2.489 I B Cu 29 Copper

2.490 Ag 47 Silver

2.491 Au 79 Gold

2.492 Gd 64 Gadolinium

2.493 Cm 96 Curium

2.494 II B Zn 30 Zinc

2.495 Cd 48 Cadmium

2.496 Hg 80 Mercury

2.497 Tb 65 Terbium

2.498 Bk 97 Berkelium

2.499 Dy 66 Dysprosium

2.500 Cf 98 Californium

2.501 Boran and Carbon Families

2.502 III A B 5 Boron

2.503 Al 13 Aluminum

2.504 Ga 31 Gallium

2.505 In 49 Indium

2.506 Tl 81 Thallium

2.507 Ho 67 Holmium

2.508 Es 99 Einsteinium

2.509 IV A C 6 Carbon

2.510 Si 14 Silicon

2.511 Ge 32 Germanium

2.512 Sn 50 Tin

2.513 Pb 82 Lead

2.514 Er 68 Erbium

2.515 Fm 100 Fermium

2.516 Nitrogen and Oxygen Families

2.517 V A N 7 Nitrogen

2.518 P 15 Phosphorus

2.519 As 33 Arsenic

2.520 Sb 51 Antimony

2.521 Bi 83 Bismuth

2.522 Tm 69 Thulium

2.523 Md 101 Mendelevium

2.524 VI A O 8 Oxygen

2.525 S 16 Sulfur

2.526 Se 34 Selenium

2.527 Te 52 Tellurium

2.528 Po 84 Polonium

2.529 Yb 70 Ytterbium

2.530 No 102 Nobelium

2.531 The Halogens

2.532 VII A F 9 Fluorine

2.533 Cl 17 Chlorine

2.534 Br 35 Bromine

2.535 I 53 Iodine

2.536 At 85 Astatine

2.537 Lu 71 Lutetium

2.538 Lw 103 Lawrencium

2.539 Inert Gases

2.540 He 2 Helium

2.541 Ne 10 Neon

2.542 Ar 18 Argon

2.543 Kr 36 Krypton

2.544 Xe 54 Xenon

2.545 Rn 86 Radon

2.546 TABLE OF ELEMENTS

2.547 Adapted from: (1) Periodi Central Sci

2.548 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

2.549 TABLE OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS Atomic weight | # | Atomic weight | # | Atomic weight | # | Atomic weight 11.00797 | 28 | 58.71 | 55 | 132.905 | 82 | 207.19 41.003 | 29 | 63.54 | 56 | 137.34 | 83 | 208.98 65.939 | 30 | 65.37 | 57 | 138.91 | 84 | (210) 99.012 | 31 | 69.72 | 58 | 140.12 | 85 | (210) 00.81 | 32 | 72.59 | 59 | 140.91 | 86 | (222) 22.011 | 33 | 74.92 | 60 | 144.24 | 87 | (223) 44.007 | 34 | 78.96 | 61 | (147) | 88 | (226) 55.9994 | 35 | 79.909 | 62 | 150.35 | 89 | (227) 99.00 | 36 | 83.80 | 63 | 152.0 | 90 | 232.04 00.183 | 37 | 85.47 | 64 | 157.25 | 91 | (231) 22.990 | 38 | 87.62 | 65 | 158.92 | 92 | 238.03 44.31 | 39 | 88.905 | 66 | 162.50 | 93 | (237) 06.98 | 40 | 91.22 | 67 | 164.93 | 94 | (242) 28.09 | 41 | 92.91 | 68 | 167.26 | 95 | (243) 00.974 | 42 | 95.94 | 69 | 168.93 | 96 | (247) 22.064 | 43 | (98) | 70 | 173.04 | 97 | (247) 55.453 | 44 | 101.1 | 71 | 174.97 | 98 | (251) 99.948 | 45 | 102.905 | 72 | 178.49 | 99 | (254) 99.102 | 46 | 106.4 | 73 | 180.95 | 100 | (253) 00.08 | 47 | 107.870 | 74 | 183.85 | 101 | (256) 44.96 | 48 | 112.40 | 75 | 186.2 | 102 | (254) 77.90 | 49 | 114.82 | 76 | 190.2 | 103 | (257) 00.94 | 50 | 118.69 | 77 | 192.2 | 104 | 52.00 | 51 | 121.75 | 78 | 195.09 | 105 | 44.94 | 52 | 127.60 | 79 | 196.97 | 106 | 55.85 | 53 | 126.90 | 80 | 200.59 | 107 | 88.93 | 54 | 131.30 | 81 | 204.37 | 108 |

2.550 IMPORTANT ATOMIC CONSTANTS (physical scale)

2.551 Mass of proton (mp)=1.0075957 ś0.0000010

2.552 Mass of neutron (mn)=1.0089861 ś0.0000015

2.553 Mass of dueteron (md)=2.0141915 ś0.0000028

2.554 Mass of triton (mt)=3.016456 ś0.000005

2.555 Mass of electron (me)=(5.487675 ś0.00004)X10 =(9.1085 ś0.0004)X10šgm

2.556 Electronic charge (e)=(4.80281 ś0.00008)X10źesu

2.557 Avogadro’s number (N)=(6.0248 ś0.0002)X10šş moleź

2.558 Velocity of light in vacuo (c)=(2.997928 ś0.000004) X10źcm/sec

2.559 Faraday (F=Ne/c)=(9652.0 ś0.2) emu/(gm equivalent)

2.560 Planck’s constant (h)=(6.6251 ś0.0002)X10šerg sec

2.561 Boltzmann constant (k)=(1.38046 ś0.00005)X10ź erg/deg

2.562 Gas constant per mole (Ro=Nk)=(8.3170 ś0.0001) X10 erg/ mole deg

2.563 Table of the Elements Chart. Scientific Co. U.S.A. (2) Life Science Library-matter. Ralph E. Lapp and Life Editors. Time Incorporated, N.Y. 1963.

2.564 44

2.565 GEOLOGICAL TIME TABLE

2.566 Approximate Chronological Succession of Life Forms on Earth

2.567 Approximate Duration in years

2.568 ERA PERIOD EPOCH YEARS BEFORE PRESENT

2.569 Cenozoic 70,000,000 yrs. QUATERNARY 1,000,000 yrs. RECENT .5 million PLEISTOCENE 1 million TERTIARY 69 x 10yrs. PLIOCENE 14 x 10 MIOCENE 26 x 10 OLIGOCENE 36 x 10 EOCENE 60 x 10 PALEOCENE 70 x 10

2.570 Mesozoic 155 x 10yrs. CRETACEOUS 65 x 10yrs. late early 135 x 10 JURASSIC 45 x 10yrs. late middle early 180 x 10 TRIASSIC 45 x 10yrs. late middle early 225 x 10

2.571 Paleozoic 375,000,000 yrs. PERMIAN late early 270 x 10 CARBON- IFEROUS 80 x 10yrs. PENNSYLVANIAN 320 x 10 MISSISSIPPIAN 350 x 10 DEVONIAN 50 x 10yrs. late middle early 400 x 10 SILURIAN 40 x 10yrs. late middle early 440 x 10 ORDOVICIAN 60 x 10yrs. late middle early 500 x 10 CAMBRIAN 100 x 10yrs. late middle early 600 x 10

2.572 Proterozoic

2.573 Archeozoic

2.574 Azoic

2.575 PRECAMBRIAN

2.576 FORMATION of EARTH ( current estimate )

2.577 4.5 billion

2.578 6 billion

2.579 Sources: (1) 1965 World Almanac. Hansen Editor. New York World-Telegram and the Sun, N.Y. 1965. (2) World Geo-Graphic Atlas. Bayer. Container Corp. of America. Chicago, Ill. 1953.

2.580 45

2.581 EARTH AND THE BIOSPHERE

2.582 The biosphere, or biofilm is the thin coating around the earth within which are sustained all the living organisms.

2.583 EXOSPHERE IONOSPHERE MESOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE TROPOSPHERE BIOSPHERE SEA LEVEL HYDROSPHERE 1,000 MILE ATMOSPHERIC LEVEL. 1,000 MILE LITHOSPHERIC GEOLOGICAL LEVEL. ROCKS 0.02 Btu METAMORPHIC 0.25 Btu GRANITE 0.23 Btu BASALT ? Btu ? Btu ? Btu INNER CORE OUTER CORE MANTLE CRUST BIOSPHERE

2.584 { (440 Btu per hr per sq ft) RECEIVED FROM SUN { (190 Btu per hr per sq ft) REFLECTED BY ATMOSPHERE TO OUTER SPACE { (0.04 Btu per hr per sq ft) USED TO EVAPORATE WATER & ACTIVATE WINDS { (70 Btu per hr per sq ft) ABSORBED AND RERADIATED BY LAND { (180 Btu per hr per sq ft) ABSORBED & RERADIATED BY ALL WATER SURFACES 1 BTU/sq. in. per year ENERGY FLOW FROM EARTH

2.585 The field forces at work in the core, and in the mantle, and in the crust pour up into the biofilm as heat, magnetism, and other constituents of the system.*

2.586 Physical and radiant forces playing on the film from the solar system and cosmos generally.*

2.587 The densest and most revealing part of the film: Life just above and just below sea level.*

2.588 "The biofilm may be regarded as the Continuum expressed in a geological age, an aeon. Just as atoms express the force fields in microcosmic form, so the germ cells may be looked upon as expressing life forces.

2.589 A thin slice of reality clothed in physical forms, which obey the laws of force and metric and probably other fields which constitute the hyperdimensional space of nature, non-material and supersensory.

2.590 The bio-bubble may be thought of as a dilute gelatinous film of which the living orders actually themselves are the particles held together by physical and by non-material forces. The play of the life drama has gone on for 600 millions of years, the longest continuous performance on the largest screen known to man."*

2.591 Adapted from: *(1) "The Film of Living Beauty". F.L. Kunz.Main Currents in Modern Thought. Vol. 18. Sept./Oct. 1961. (2) "The Geoscope". John McHale. Architectural Design, England. Dec. 1964.

2.592 46

2.593 SPACE SCALE OF THE UNIVERSE

2.594 Object examples Linear distances Diameters in meters

2.595 150 possible universe (?) spherical "horizon" of knowledge 10š

2.596 140 a group of supergalaxies one billion light years 10š supergalaxy

2.597 130 minor group of galaxies one megaparsec 10šź large galaxy one million light years small galaxy

2.598 120 galactic satellite cluster one kiloparsec 10ź globular cluster of stars one thousand light years distance to Regulus

2.599 110 distance to nearest star one parsec 10ź multiple star system one light year inner reservoir of comets

2.600 100 orbit of Pluto one billion kilometers 10źš orbit of Jupiter orbit of the earth

2.601 90 outer corona of the sun one million kilometers 10 the sun (an average star) Jupiter (a large planet)

2.602 80 the earth one thousand kilometers 10 average moon large asteroid

2.603 70 medium asteroid or mountain one kilometer 10ş all mankind (a cubic kilometer) great pyramid

2.604 60 whale one meter 1 man (a cubic meter) grapefruit

2.605 50 cherry one centimeter 10ş grapeseed (a cubic millimeter) one millimeter flea or grain of sand

2.606 40 ovum or dust particle one micron 10 bacterium virus

2.607 30 protein molecule one millimicron 10 sugar molecule one angstrom (10źm.) atom

2.608 20 inner atom one thousand fermis 10źš

2.609 10 atomic nucleus one fermi 10ź elementary particle

2.610 0 possible field entry (?) 10ź

2.611 Sources: (1) Miff

2.612 (2) THE SERIES OF MATERIAL ORGANIZATIONS +9 . . . . . +8 Universe (Space time) Complex +7 Metagalaxy +6 Galactic Clusters +5 Galaxies +4 Stellar Clusters +3 Star Families +2 Satellite Systems +1 Meteoric Associations 0 Man (Colloidal and) Crystalline Aggregate -1 Molecular Systems -2 Molecules -3 Atoms -4 Corpuscles -5 . . . . .

2.613 MAN’S INCREASING KNOWLEDGE: SPACE AND TIME

2.614 (1) TIME SCALE OF THE UNIVERSE Duration in seconds Ages or periods of time 10š unknown outer limits of time 10š possible age of the universe (?) age of the earth (6 billion years) 10ź one revolution of the sun around the galaxy age of younger mountain systems duration of human race (a million years) 10ź written history age of a nation a year one revolution of earth around sun a month 10 a day one rotation of the earth an hour eating of a meal a minute taking of a breath 1 a second a heartbeat a blink of an eye 10 vibration period of audible sound a flash of lightning duration of a muon particle 10ź vibration period of radar time for light to cross a room time for an air molecule to spin once 10ź vibration period of infra-red radiation vibration period of visible light vibration period of x-rays 10š vibration period of gamma rays 10š time for a proton to revolve once in the nucleus of an atom unknown inner limits of time

2.615 Music of the Spheres. G. Murchie. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1961. (2) Lecture Series: Southern Illinois University. Harlow Shapley. 1964.

2.616 47