4 The Service Industries
5.1Phase 4. Analysis of world network of service industries, i.e., telephone, airways, communication services, hoteling, universities. General extension of dynamic network operating principles into formerly ’static’ areas of environment control both internal and external. Frequency modulated–world planning of three shift, 24-hour use of facilities, i.e., most industrial facilities as yet operating under obsolete agricultural dawn to dusk, single frequency usage. Trans-sonic 1800 mph air travel transcends day-night and seasonal characteristics. Men literally jump out of night into day and out of winter into summer in minutes. Thus, local patterns of facilities employment trending swiftly into 24-hour succession of users, i.e., electrically lit telephone booths by roadside. (R.B. Fuller, 1964)
5.2 Service, as a craft industry concept, has a long history. Apart from the narrower area of personal services performed for ’masters’ by servants or slaves, there were from the earliest times various types of ’inn’ services maintained for couriers, merchants, pilgrims, etc. The monasteries, for example, in the medieval period were generalized ’embryo’, service centers providing information, accommodation, health, guidance and other types of assistance for the traveller, or the local folk. The port service facilities set up for refitting, refueling, etc., by the early sea merchants have a direct line of development to the air terminal facilities of today. City growth may be viewed as that of a centralized service organism where specialized skills, facilities and other resources were maintained; the rise of the professions as ’service’ occupations are also related to city development.
5.3 The majority of men, however, as agriculturally based had little access to centralized services and were relatively self-sufficient in this regard. The home/family complex was the cooperative service unit. In such marginal economies ’services’ tend to be restricted to limited personal service as most energy is reserved for production of essential requirements. It is only when man becomes more mobile due to environmental pressures, i.e., in migrations or large territorial expansions, or through the availability of energy surpluses, that we may note the growth of specialized services.
5.4 The first phases of industrialization stimulated much auxiliary service for industry. Roads, rail and communication services spread rapidly around the world to help gain access to raw materials and redistribute these to the world market as finished goods. There was an accompanying growth in maintenance service for the more complex installations and equipment and for the greater mobility of men requiring hotel, information, personal and other services. The machine goods produced began also to require service support systems–spare part inventories, maintenance and repair services, etc.
5.5 Our present major cities are essentially service interchange terminals in the world communications and transportation network.
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5.7 The postal mail system, which became general also during this period, is an interesting case of relatively anonymous service system growth, which has quietly and invisibly developed into a reliable and indispensable world service institution whose activities are regulated through international agreement. We may consider also the growth of local and regional health services, and their present international role within the World Health Organization.
5.8 The railroad system, as one of the early major environment tools, took over, in the transport service tradition, responsibility for the provision of on route and terminal facilities–restaurants, sleeping cars, baggage service, inter-terminal communication, etc. You did not purchase a train or carriage in order to use the system, but a ticket for a specific ’serviced’ journey.
5.9 Automobiles, though sold as an ’owned’ product, required immediately for their full use the development of an extended ’service’ network of roads, fueling stations, repair and spare parts depots, and their various auxiliary enterprises–road signs and traffic regulation, auto service clubs, motels, restaurants, on up to today’s developed ’drive in’ services–from banks to movies to church services. Each of these auxiliary services has to be separately purchased; therefore, automobile usage is not strictly a service industry. The car as ’contact product’ would be useless without its attendant support services. It is basically marketed as a ’service-in-supply’ item with maintenance warranty, etc., as part of its initial cost.
5.10 The telephone, however, is a much ’purer’ case of a service facility. The contact instrument is an identical ’anonymous’ unit not ’owned’ by the subscriber but remaining a rented instrument through which one ’taps in’ to a vast invisible world service network. Behind the contact instrument, whose basic design alters little, there is the constant refinement and improved technological performance of the overall network service. From such services the subscriber has grown to expect the highest technological advantage to be swiftly available in the most remote locations. He also expects that the latest technical advances, i.e., satellite exchange services, videophone, will be initiated and incorporated into service through the overall facility.
5.11 There is also prominently developed as an evolving feature of such advanced services that they operate on twenty four hour schedules. To match up to the increasing ecological mobility of man, requiring whole earth twenty-four hour time availability of world services, such industries as telephone, airways, communication services, hoteling, typically provide day/night facilities. In effect, as globally oriented, they do not distinguish the former agriculturally oriented periods of work/sleep according to available daylight and seasonal hours. These become simply time increment divisions, traditionally and conveniently based on the earth’s rotation around to the sun.
5.12 Relative to these various performance improvements, it is interesting to observe that no one would purchase an automobile whose technical performance, maintenance needs, and overall services, were so poor and little improved over the years as the average ’dwelling’. Comparing auto to telephone, who would now subscribe to a telephone system which was restricted to set routes; for which he had to pay for various performance ’extras’; which had no immediately maintenance of service on breakdown, and which could only reach a relatively small area of the earth?
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5.14 In terms of ’tool evolution’ it would seem that the more technologically advanced the industry the more likely that it is a service facility. All of our most advanced large-scale industrial enterprises are now service oriented rather than product manufacturing and marketing institutions. This trend has been further accelerated by the introduction of automated production. Products may now be manufactured in astronomical quantity runs, with less and less input of human and machine energies. The role of major public or private ’business’ utilities is therefore not so directly concerned with the creation of ’wealth’ through material products manufactured–but rather with the organization and regulation of the wealth distribution. There is then the shift in emphasis from production and product sales marketing to the wider concept of the service industry–whether this is in service of supplied products (auto) or service in the full rentable (telephone) facility sense.
5.15 This is now occurring locally in various areas of new product introduction. The emphasis is placed not on the instrument or device manufactured but on materials supplied for use–or, on direct rental or linked rental operations. For example, information processing machines, i.e., copiers, duplicators, etc., for large-scale office use, are not purchased by the user but usually made available by the manufacturer on a minimal rental basis. The economics of the process are justified on the supply of process materials, papers, films, developers, etc., for use with the machine.
5.16 We may note also in relation to ’home/family dwelling’, as the central service facility of earlier periods, that many of the previously home-based services are now externalized into commercial or municipal functions. Examples of these would be laundry, cleaning, refuse disposal, large-scale food preservation and preparation, water supply, heating, lighting utilities, etc.
5.17 These developments are paced by changes in occupation and shift in society’s orientation to work, production, leisure, etc. The manual production work declines obviously as more mechanical energies are poured into production. Supervisory functions vanish as the machine regulates its own work. Inventories no longer need small armies of clerical workers–and so on, up through the hierarchy of functions, to include executive control of marketing and distribution functions. There is a corresponding shift of manpower to the service industry sector, but this again may only be viewed as a temporary phenomena when automated facilities begin to take over large areas of such servicing. Even ’last ditch’ service occupations like the cleaning and janitorial maintenance of hotels, hospitals, restaurants, schools and office buildings are now being dealt with more efficiently by machine installations.
5.18 Analyzing such social and economic change, Daniel Bell gives the following summary:
5.19 "...as the productivity in a society increased and national income began to rise, the bulk of the labor force would begin to shift out of what he called the primary sector. The primary sector is larger agricultural and mining, engaging seventy per cent or more of the labor force in unskilled work (a fact still true of the bulk of the countries in the world today). When countries begin to industrialize, the bulk of the labor force shifts into industry, or the secondary sector. But as a country enters into a phase of high consumption, the labor force begins to shift into tertiary (services), quaternary trade and finance) and quinary (research, recreation and teaching) sectors. In the past, thus, the increase in white-collar 81
5.20 1963 PROFILE OF POPULATION BY OCCUPATION (salaried men and women from 15 to 65)
5.21 Egypt 71 10 19 Brazil 68 12 20 France 28 37 35 Italy 38 33 29 U.K. 5 50 45 Japan 52 22 26 U.S.A. 8 41 51 India 68 10 22
5.22 % of population in agriculture % of population in manufacturing % of population in transportation, commerce, administration, and professions
5.23 Total Working Population in Millions
5.24 Figures from: Great World Atlas. Readers Digest Inc. N.Y., 1963.
5.25 U.S.A. EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY
5.26 Millions of Workers
5.27 Manufacturing Government Services Agriculture
5.28 1950 52 54 56 58 60 62 64
5.29 Source: Automation and Employment. Dupont Pamphlet, No. 27, 1964.
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5.31 employments has come from the expansion of jobs in government, insurance, banks, schools and colleges, and the like."65
5.32 Bell also gives the following figures for the changing (U.S.) occupational balance indicating that the greatest growth of employed is that of the most highly educated workers:- ’in 1950, almost five million persons were engaged in professional and technical employ- ment. By 1960, the number rose fifty percent to 7.5 million, and by 1970, the professional and technical groups will number ten million, or double the total of twenty years before..... By 197-, the number of white collar jobs will be twenty-five per cent greater than the blue collar ones.’
5.33 All of this points to the intensive expansion of the service industries concept. Not only to service in lieu of any machine capacity to carry out the task, or service in support of machine supplied items, but towards a vast ecological change in man’s whole societal relation. The most phenomenal growth industry is in knowledge processing, both in the expanded capacities to amass, analyze and use information through the computer and in the primary sector of knowledge discovery, communication and development - education. Education is the key growth industry.
5.34 Let us glance first at the development of information processing and communications facilities.
5.35 Local information processing facilities are now available in many different service center forms. These include the ’drive in’ type where the customer brings unprocessed data to the center, obtains free parking and use of an office and personnel to prepare the information, then uses any of a number of computer systems to perform necessary operations. Such centers are open round the clock, seven days a week.66
5.36 Local centers where processing is done on the spot are rapidly giving way to large interlinked data processing systems spread over a continent and with possible international hookups. Services already in operation, like Dataphone, facsimile wire services, Videx and Alpurcom, allow of remote information processing and communication at an unprecedented rate.
5.37 The Videx system transmits photos, charts and documents over ordinary telephone lines in ten to thirty seconds without any special cables.67
5.38 Alpurcom68 is a high speed facsimile scanner and recorder capable of sending and reproducing graphic messages at up to sixteen times present network speeds. Using a nineteen inch wide standard or any width special recording head this can handle continuous flat copy at many different scanning and transmission speeds and including any media–voice, graphics, alpha-numeric data, machine language; all thinknesses from tissue to cardboard to magazine; all sizes from tape to full-scale drawings of an automobile or a missile; and in a wide range of colors, backgrounds and contrasts.
5.39 65 "The Post-Industrial Society" by Daniel Bell; Liberty Mutual Anniv. Conf. June, 1962. (Referring to ’Conditions of Economic Progress’, Colin Clark. Publ., 1940) 66 "Datamat" System; Statistical Tabulating Corp. (U.S.) 67 International Telephone and Telegraph Corp. (U.S.) 68 Alden Electronic Equipment, Co. (Though such information is approximately 12 mo. old, development is so fast in this area that such examples may be already obsolete.
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5.41 Over the next decade it is anticipated that such facilities will be accessible through telephone, telegraph, etc., to millions of customers, and will have developed into new kinds of public service utilities. Through such systems, the executive could consult remotely stored records on tape or microfilm by merely dialing a code number.
5.42 The same system would give him access to work drawings, prints, photo copies, etc. Lawyers, for example, need no longer dig through hundreds of back cases but dial a law library for computer served answers to their specific query. Doctors may be able to dial diagnosis problems into a distant computer center to swiftly compare these with a vast number of similar cases.
5.43 Automation, in these terms, is no longer that of a single factory where discrete machines and operations are linked into a continuous flow but where such manufacture, inventory, distribution, etc., are continuously monitored and controlled throughout a continent.
5.44 In referring to ’systems’ in planning development, we noted that this approach was being extended to whole regional and national economies. Academician V. Nemchinov (USSR) announced, in March, 1964, that his country had set itself the task of computerizing the operation of the entire economy.
5.45 "This is a matter of establishing a unified automated system of management of the national economy. It will comprise a net of computing dispatcher centers with a regular supply of information. The core of the system will be the main computing center with a system of electronic machines capable of performing three million operations per second."
5.46 He went on to say that the formula ’Soviet power, plus the electrification of all country’ is now supplemented by, ’Plus the chemicalization of the entire national economy’-’Plus electronics in control of the economy.’ 69
5.47 We may see, therefore, the continuing global spread and vast interlinkages of such computerized communications and control systems. What they also offer, of course, are enormous capacities for education; many have already been so adapted, e.g., ’Facsimile’ blackboard telephones to accompany remote linkages of classrooms to a central educational service, etc.
5.48 The increase in education facilities is not only necessary to render such capacities available to all men but to give man increased social and individual control over such developments. Also, to bring to bear such marshalled intellectual resource on the future problems of societal adjustment to the accelerated rate of change itself introduced by technological development, and to investigate the possible evolutionary effects on man of, for example, this increased change and mobility. Man recently in satellite orbit went through a complete cycle of day and night, ’earth shine and earth shadow’, every 80 minutes of his seventeen orbits around the earth. We know little about the internal metabolic ’clocks’ which regulate and synchronize man’s internal rhythms in relation to such abrupt acceleration of external cycles. As life becomes more interwoven with technology, it will be more vulnerable to the malfunction of large-scale systems and to the consequences of increased innovation, etc.
5.49 69 Wassily Neimchinov, Soviet Economist, Mathematician. TASS service in English 1709 GMT; March 9, 1964.
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5.51 1963 PROFILE OF POPULATION BY AGE
5.52 less than 16 yrs. old from 16-65 yrs. old 65 yrs. and older
5.53 Australia 11 Colombia 15 Canada 18 Egypt 27 Turkey 30 Mexico 37 France 47 Italy 50 U. K. 53 W. Germany 57 Brazil 75 Japan 95 U.S.A. 189 U.S.S.R. 223 India 442
5.54 Total Population in Millions
5.55 Percentage of Total Populations
5.56 Figures from: Great World Atlas. Readers Digest Inc. N.Y., 1963
5.57 85
5.58 INCREASE IN SCIENTIFIC AND ABSTRACT JOURNALS Journals 1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100 10 Scientific Journals Abstract Journals 1865 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 Source: Dr. H. Striner. Upjohn Institute, 1963.
5.59 KNOWLEDGE GROWTH Government Professional Financial Services Information Machines Communication Broadcasting, Cinema, etc. Publishing and Printing Research and Development Industrial and Others Higher Education Primary and Secondary Schools 1958 Total 136 Billion Dollars 1963 Total 195 Billion Dollars The Production and Dist- ribution of Knowledge in the United States, by Fritz Machlup of Princeton. The clear bars represent Machlup’s original measure- ments, which reckoned the knowledge industry in 1958 as nearly 30% of the total national output; the toned bars, which update Machlup’s estimate, shows that the industry has grown no less than 43% in five years. Fortune Mag.. Nov., 1964) 0 1 2 3 4 5 Billions of Dollars Source: "Knowledge: The Biggest Growth Industry of them All". Gilbert Burck. Fortune Magazine, Nov. 1964.
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5.61 The whole question of education seems a focal point throughout our various phase discussions, and, as suggested within that phase, education itself may be considered from this point on as the key growth and service industry.
5.62 We have also touched upon the affects of automation on industry generally and the service industry orientation more specifically. Automation will mean more ’leisure’ or re-investible time for large sections of the population. There will be generated, in turn, a need for:
5.63 (a) The retraining and re-education of those who may become displaced by automation, and (b) The more extensive education of those preparing for life in our emergent society.
5.64 The term ’cradle to grave’ schooling has been aptly employed to comment upon this all-embracing new education orientation.
5.65 As a service facility, education is already undergoing an extensive de-centralization. This is not only in terms of physical plant, i.e., the creation of more colleges, more train- ing and re-training facilities, more associated research and development centers, etc., but also in de-materialized extension. Wired and wireless, piped and beamed facilities extend one teacher, one classroom or one college to possible vast peographical coverage–via telephone, television, air and satellite transmitters, computer linked libraries, and information services, etc. To extend the term used in the heading to this chapter–the dissemination of knowledge has become established on a true frequency modulation basis.
5.66 One may literally ’tune in’ on knowledge through the radio, T.V. and telephone. With more sophisticated systems, now available, one may even individually select, and follow through complex sequences and instructional programs.
5.67 Advances in educational technology have now made available a number of measurably efficient self-instructional ’programmed’ materials. These will swiftly develop into presequenced ’package learning’ devices employing video tape, film, book texts, plus the remote computer linkages via libraries and control centers.
5.68 It is now literally and technically possible to have the equivalent of the school (or even college) actually in the home dwelling. This may very well be the indicated direction for educational and training development in the emerging countries. It is not really a new concept. The home/family dwelling for most people, in most of recorded history, was the prime educational environ, and remains so for almost all people in their earliest and most crucial years. But though the concept is not new the equipment and design foresight required to reconsider home/family dwelling as the prime educational environ and its re-integration as a fully advantaged unit are new.
5.69 A recent study70 drawing attention to the crucial importance of the early years between birth and four suggests that:
5.70 "Half of all the growth and intelligence takes place between birth and age four. The next 30 per cent increase in intelligence is made between the ages of four and eight. Between eight and seventeen, when the child is
5.71 70 "Stability and Change in Human Characteristics", Benjamin S. Bloom, publ: John Wiley, 1964. 87
5.72 of school age, intelligence increases only about 20 per cent. In short, just as much intelligence develops in the first four years of life as in the next thirteen and there is very little growth after eighteen years...
5.73 The conclusion must be that though it is tremendously important to provide infants with the most favorable environment during the first four years of their lives, the influence of the environment on intelligence becomes smaller and smaller with each year after the fourth and by school age is insignificant."71
5.74 Of course it is not only intelligence which is developed during these early years, but also the basic characteristics which determine much of the later behavior and personality of the individual.
5.75 If such findings are correct, our input of personnel, funds and energy into education should actually be reversed–we presently expend most effort on the years after eighteen and leave the birth to four years period to happenstance! A case could, therefore, be made for inverting the educational structure–that is to pay the mother, or other person responsible for the most important and formative years, more than the college professor–in due ratio to her greater responsibility!
5.76 Concerned, therefore, with the overall design of environmental controls for the optimal growth and development of man, we should underline the important role of the home/family dwelling as the area in which the prime development of man takes place.
5.77 In considering the forward design conception of world facilities for man’s full developing ecological needs we would have then three areas of major concern:
5.78 1. Single family dwelling 2. Aggregates of family dwellings - communities, etc. 3. Educational service networks.
5.79 Considered as of advanced design and as incorporating the latest scientific and technological development, these are all service requirements.
5.80 Single Family Dwelling
5.81 In discussing this area we shall necessarily repeat some comments made in the first chapter regarding world housing. In noting, also in this chapter, that the other advance environment controls of man like the auto, the ship and airliner were part of comprehensive service systems, we underlined that behind their functioning there were full repair, replacement and maintenance systems. They also embody a high degree of anticipatory planning against part failure and have overhaul and performance improvement built into their efficient functioning. Specific industrial criteria which should operate in the design of dwelling facilities are:
5.82 "Minimum weight compatible with maximum performance, Lower cost for maximum distribution and efficient production."
5.83 71 Quotation from review and commentary of "Stability and Change in Human Characteristics" by Benjamin S. Bloom. Review by Dr. Bruno Bettelheim, N.Y. Review. 88
5.84 The technical performance of such a living facility may not be realistically con- sidered in terms of single isolated units, or as handcrafted multiples of such units but imply the full supporting technology of a developed industry of which house is the contact instrument. It would be as pointless to assume ’house’ outside of this implied context as to discuss car, telephone or plane in the same terms–as isolated units without their support, service and forward development systems. The distribution of the human family is global, therefore, we should consider the facility as capable of performing adequately in every climatic condition found on earth.
5.85 The mechanical and structural aspects of dwelling have been dealt with in other works more fully than we could do here.72 It may be useful, however, to state, or restate, certain aspects of ’house’ services to ensure that they be given sufficient attention. The autonomous, or semi-autonomous function is an important one. Dependence on local systems of water/sewage and other utilities is one of the least efficient aspects of current dwelling. Apart from reasons related to depleted or polluted water supplies, there is also the trend towards deployed mobile living requirement in advanced countries, and, even more important, the fact that two thirds of the population in the developing countries live in rural areas. The trend toward urban congestion in the latter countries may be reversed through the provision of scientifically designed autonomously powered high standard living unit, which would embody the latest communications and other service facilities to accommodate rural deployed living.
5.86 It may be expected that the most revolutionary effect of man’s success in aerospace will be the capacity to provide an autonomously operating and sustaining ecology for the human organism. The ’services’ pack, resulting from such presently massive research, will provide man with a dwelling ’services’ unit which will operate with equal facility in earth or the moon. If such service facilities require a transportation unit also, then this should form part of the overall design.
5.87 In considering the development of the lesser advanced countries, we noted that their industrial take off may be swifter than the already advanced areas. Automation and its attendant obsolescence of man as simply an agricultural or industrial producer may be anticipated as occurring swiftly in these countries also.
5.88 In designing dwelling, therefore, we should expand the home facilities in due ratio to increased ’leisure’ or re-investible time. What were previously expressed as ’hobbies’, entertainment, etc., become vital and recreative cultural pursuits. In exacting ’gainful’ mechanical work, as required by pre-industrial society in return for sustenance and shelter, many of man’s most important drives have been relegated to such marginal expression. The world living facilities service dwelling, to keep pace with the emergent global trending of man, will have to contain direct provision for the myriad ways in which he will wish to spend his increased daily, annual and life span. It may not be considered, therefore, as simply a shelter base where the wage earner’s family live and where he or she (or both as is now more customary) return to in the intervals between work. It will, of necessity, have to be dealt with as one of the most vital core units in society and, there- fore, fully advantaged with the most advanced technical provisions which may be envisaged as satisfying man’s fullest needs.
5.89 72 The pioneer exploration of R. B. Fuller in this area: See - (a) "Universal Requirements of a .Dwelling Advantage" - Doc. Two (1964)-R. B. Fuller. Also (b) Ideas and Integrities by R. B. Fuller, N.Y, Prentice Hall, 1963. 89
5.90 A society also requires the direct and conscious participation of its members in its affairs, dictating that the home unit be equipped with the most refined means for such societal interaction and participation. The ’paper’ franchise is no longer enough without the equivalent ’technological franchise’ of access to full communications.
5.91 Apart from the changing character of ’work’ and ’leisure’, there is also the con- tinued growth of the ’professional’ in the work force. Teacher, executive, researcher, etc., are all terms which express complex and now multiple roles with correspondingly expanded and complex activities. There is presently no design provision made for these activities in relation to the home magnitude of these functions. Again we should anticipate the incorporation within the home of advanced communications, information storage and retrieval systems, compactly designed and remotely linked to necessary centralized control or depository facilities
5.92 But we have already extended the discussion of this section beyond present bounds for the reason that such aspects of dwelling are barely touched upon in conventional design scheduling. It should be noted that all of the advantages described above already exist. They are available design capacities, and are all, almost without exception, service units.
5.93 Community Facilities
5.94 As our main purpose in pursuing the design of environment control is to increase the ’degrees of freedom’ which man may enjoy, we should also anticipate as many alternative ways of living as may be foreseeably required. We should therefore include among our proposed solutions not only the design of autonomous dwellings freely deployable for single family living, but also investigate the design of larger aggregate units as fully advantaged human ecology systems at the community size level.
5.95 We should not think of these as ’static’ town plans, but as flexibly adjustable systems of community components–from school, college, hospital, auditorium, town hall, shopping malls, etc., down to multiple dwelling enclosures, individual and single family dwellings. Such community units may be initially designed to provide ’emergency’ solution to world housing problems but in view of the rate of change in living patterns, and the rigidity of present communities relative to these, they may also be viewed as fulfilling a more general requirement. We should, therefore, investigate the generalized systems design for such an ’organic’ aggregate living complex. It is obviously feasible to think in terms of flexible ’services’ and structural components which could be assembled into the physical ecological controls for such a community.
5.96 We already have the technological capacity to produce such units in multiples and the systems experience in very large-scale undertakings to handle the complex variables of such an organization. The earlier example of the automated ship year demonstrates the production expertise which is available. For example, the large ocean liners presently in service carry three to four thousand persons, with all requisite high standard living facilities for long periods away from port. They are air-conditioned throughout. They have their own theaters, gymnasia, swimming pools, shopping malls as well as full maintenance and repair facilities, and they furnish enough electric power to supply the requirements of communities of an even more substantial size.73 For the highest perform- ance per pound advantage, it would be preferable, however, to think in terms of aircraft plant manufacture at similar magnitude of unit complexity and assembly.
5.97 73 Though not a passenger vessel, the first fully automated control 12,100 ton freighter was launched in Sept. 1964, with an electronic system which enabled one bridge officer to control all major engine and steering facilities.
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5.99 Obviously such community components assemblies would be so designed as to meet all necessary ’local’ physical and cultural conditions. One would aim at establishing such designs whose essential controls would be mass manufactured in the ’tailored sense and afford such assemblies as would allow for change and growth–through addition, subtraction or renewal of units no longer required.
5.100 In short, ’instant’ cities! No below ground energy investment in wires, pipes, culverts; no above ground investment in huge concrete rock piles. No problems of urban renewal, congestion, dislocation or slum deterioration, as such ’cities’ would be designed for required ’frequency’ change and renewal from their beginnings.
5.101 Dynamics of Urbanism
5.102 We have dealt in our discussion of single family dwelling and related community units, with the requirements of a new form of urban/rural living. This would also include the larger urban center - as a focus and interchange point for various services as well as being, in itself, a central ’services’ complex.
5.103 Our concern has been with the increased mobility of man–both actual physical mobility and psychical mobility in relation to possible urban patterns. The emerging requirements of an extended new form of urbanism may be based on the rapidly developing autonomous services and transportation and communications networks. In approaching urbanism for this viewpoint, the city is but one type of waystation in an extended social and communication net. This view allows us to escape the dilemmas of much present urban planning, still largely based on the city as a static agglomeration of commercial/industrial production and distribution points related to railheads, docks, and warehousing facilities, and restores it as a dynamic node in an emerging society whose centers will be the great universities, the research and ’re-investible time’ facilities.
5.104 Urbanism is viewed then as but one of a number of possible strategies for deployed living. Advanced sections of society have already developed new ecological patterns in which living in town, or being in the city, is only part of an overall pattern of living which goes on in many widely separated locations. From review of the trends of man we may expect such flexible living patterns to become more prevalent as man is increasingly franchised around the world through industrialization.
5.105 Generally, in relation to urbanism, our thinking is still oriented to the city as center in an agricultural society or one in transition through the industrial revolution. We are now in the developing phases of successive ’industrial’ revolutions – in which refined electronic means have displaced most of previous time, energy, and space relationships which were the guide lines of our thinking. For example, the designed use of so many of our urban facilities is still tied to agricultural time, on a local dawn to dusk usage or other pre-electronic periodicity, no longer suitable to a world society which by its global nature functions around the clock. The city as the lodestone for ’earning a higher living’ is no longer operative within the concept of automated, dispersed, industrial production plants whose location requires no labor pool concentrations as did the 19th Century industrial city.
5.106 It may seem difficult within transitional periods to avoid ad hoc solutions based on past workable experience, but present accelerations are so swift that such planning is often obsolete before it comes from the drawing board. In terms of lesser developed countries it seems particularly important that we avoid saddling them with such already outmoded planning concepts. Much of the literature stresses human ’settlement’ but the measurable trending shows increased mobility and relative deployment and migration. Most often 91
5.107 WORLD MOBILITY 1962 Visitors by Country of Origin; frontier checks, hotel records, etc.
5.108 Passengers By All Transports
5.109 |#|Countries|Arriving|Leaving| |—|—|—|—| |1|Australia|111,400|85,234| |2|Canada|316,564|5,736,067| |3|Chile|76,000|47,035| |4|Dominican Republic|336,000|9,547| |5|China|52,300|50,510| |6|France|5,975,000|6,500,294| |7|Germany|5,322,700|8,500,825| |8|India|134,400|51,092| |9|Ireland|2,104,200|31,327| |10|Italy|10,300,000|2,032,930| |11|Mexico|833,900|| |12|Spain|7,332,800|793,110| |13|Switzerland|5,597,900|1,286,718| |14|South Africa|202,200|48,179| |15|United States|1,060,700|4,382,424| |16|USSR|909,600|163,377| |17|Viet-Nam|39,700||
5.110 Source: 1963 Statistical Yearbook. United Nations, N.Y. 1964.
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5.112 standard economic planning schedules note the transitional drift of rural populations in developing countries to already overcrowded urban facilities. They then plan to expand the latter facilities further, when priority might be more correctly assigned to accelerating the generalized communications networks and strengthening the locally dispersed autonomous centers. Similarly educational planning in such countries seeks presently to duplicate the static centralized learning centers of more technically advanced nations–when the state of education technology allows for the development of flexibly dispersed learning centers for various purposes interlinked to centralized library and other major facilities where required.
5.113 Urbanization in all its aspects is certainly an international trend, but, as noted above, we need to re-think clearly the precise forms of urbanism which are developing. Such congestion and over-crowding or urban centers as is apparent may be transitional only. The acceleration in individual and family unit mobility, and the developing patterns of ’professional’ activities being conducted and coordinated at relatively distant working locations seems to suggest this. The growth of the university research communications center, with highly mobile populations, as primary focus replacing that of production/ distribution focal points seems also to underline a shift in concentration which may allow us to veiw the existing urban clogging as a problem whose solution lies in encouraging alter- native growth patterns already underway.
5.114 Educational Service Networks
5.115 In dealing with dwelling service and the development of deployed remotely-linked services we have, perforce, discussed the emerging patterns of new forms of educational service networks.
5.116 It is only necessary to emphasize that where conventional planning begins with the static buildings or centralized enclosure for education, we are more interested in assessing the available ’high frequency’ technologies which may enable us to deploy education so that it may be more widely available to all men.
5.117 For example, educational facilities for the developing countries are still thought of in traditional terms–of replicating the existing system of fixed hierarchies of schools, colleges, universities which obtain in the ’older’ advanced countries.
5.118 We, rather, assume that with available capacities we can more swiftly, efficiently and economically take the education to the people–via mobile educational units, T.V., telephone and computer linked systems, etc. We should seek to define the kinds of networks, tool systems and home or community based ’contact instruments’ we require. This may obviate the need for, and delay in first constructing, the great static ’campus’ units. They are also necessary, of course, as there is and will be a continuing requirement for various kinds of centralized complexes. But, by giving the buildings their present priority, the required expansion of educational facilities is enormously slowed down. Often, by the time such buildings are finally finished, they are obsolete monuments, ill-adapted to the process which they were designed to contain and serve.
5.119 World Service
5.120 The magnitude of such world service facilities development described above may seem too great for man’s immediate implementation. It is in evidence, however, that our present global services, airlines, telephones, etc., have only begun to function at increasing degrees of efficiency as they were expanded to world networks. The ’natural’ growth of such facilities is towards global service–the more people served the more economic the process.
5.121 93
5.122 TODAYS WEAPONRY POTENTIAL vs. TOMORROWS LIVINGRY POTENTIAL
5.123 4 attack submarines at $45,000,000 each would pay for 1 year of agricultural aid for $178,699,760
5.124 One $105,000,000 atomic submarine minus missiles would pay for $132,095,000 in famine relief aid including freight costs
5.125 One $122,600,000 atomic submarine including missiles would pay for $150,000,000 in techical aid
5.126 One $275,000,000 aircraft carrier would pay for $251,000,000 for 12,000 high school dwellings
5.127 One $104,616,800 naval weapons plant would pay for 35 school buildings at $4,000,000 each
5.128 One $104,616,800 naval weapons plant would pay for 26 - 160 bed hospitals at $4,000,000 each
5.129 One $250,000,000 intercontinental ballistic missile base would pay for One 1,743,000 KWH capacity hydro electric dam
5.130 14 standard jet bombers at a cost of $8,000,000 each would pay for A school lunch program of $110,000,000 and serving 14 million children
5.131 One new prototype bomber fully equiped would pay for 250,000 teacher salaries this year or 30 science faculties each with 1,000 students or 75 fully-equiped 100-bed hospitals... or 50,000 tractors... or 15,000 harvesters
5.132 Adapted from: (1) The Peace Race. Seymour Melman, 1961. (2) Atlanta Journal, March 11, 1965.
5.133 94
5.134 We also maintain other, even more complex, world service networks, which may serve as comprehensive examples of such large-scale organization. They are, respectively, ’positive’ and ’negative’ – one, the World Health Organization (WHO) devoted to livingry; two, the various world national and supra-national ’defense’ establishments devoted to weaponry.
5.135 One function of WHO, which may demonstrate best its invisible and unobtrusive service, is in the control of possible world epidemics or plagues–many of these scourges, such as smallpox which caused sixty million deaths in Europe in the 17th Century, have only recently come under relative control in many parts of the world.
5.136 Such ’plagues’ are still a constant world wide threat whose monitoring and control required unremitting vigilance. With global air travel they might sweep around the world in a few hours. Under present international sanitary regulations, all countries must notify WHO headquarters in Geneva of the occurrence of a case of smallpox within the day. From Geneva swift alerts are sent to all neighboring countries with connecting airline services. Shortwave radio announcements go to all continents and are monitored by all national health organizations, port health authorities, ships at sea and airlines already in transit.
5.137 In 1963 alone, about a quarter of a million smallpox cases were reported; in 1964, despite the precautions and regulations of the International Quarantine Service, smallpox travelled by aircraft from South East Asia to Sweden, from India to Poland and from Central Africa to Switzerland. In all these cases, a world epidemic of possible astronomical proportion was prevented by the existence of the World Health Organization. This presents only one facet of its role as a highly developed world service facility on whose successful unobtrusive operation the entire world is dependent and which in turn depends on the fullest cooperation of all nations to maintain its advantage.
5.138 The other, and negative, example of a world ’service’ networks is the ’defense’ establishment of the world–in total. Based not on mutual cooperation, but mutual misunderstanding and distrust, these separate national and supra-national organizations impound a large fraction of the highest scientific and technical advantage in the service of destruction. Their present expenditures total is equivalent to almost nine per cent of the world’s annual output of goods and services. This represents a large volume of human and material resources which could otherwise be used to increase world man’s economic and social wellbeing. With support services, nearly 50 million people are presently preoccupied with the maintenance of these world networks of armed forces, bases, depots, communications services, research and development, production facilities, etc. We may include such an example, here, as it does represent the presently available capacity of man to design, construct and maintain what must be one of the largest, most complex, and technically efficient ’single purpose’ facilities ever built.
5.139 There is much in the overall design of such systems which may be studied for more ’positive’ purposes. In considering the comprehensive redesign and development of world service facility we need to examine all possibilities of turning even apparently negative aspects of world development to man’s positive forward advantage. In the overall world ecological system there are no factors which are intrinsically negative or positive. Such bipolarity, even in nature, is interconvertible and represents only certain complimentary aspects of the whole process.
5.140 UNESCO Courier. March, 1965. Ibid.
5.141 Our larger purpose lies with the means of designing man’s way forward so that world society may proceed to its next evolutionary phase. The great potential capacities of the fully automated industrial process, and the designed provision of a related and fully developed global system of high advantage environ control service facilities, would allow man to be freed from his age-old preoccupation with minimal survival. The possibility of an unprecedented abundance of material wealth renders obsolete the weaponry systems which are predicated on the pre-industrial marginal survival alternatives of ’your side or my side’. Now, even in world terms, there can be more than enough to go around– for the first time in human history.
5.142 In similar fashion, ’politics’ trends towards obsolescence as the primary focus for decisions and solutions regarding material problems. Politics has been called ’the art of the possible.’ This may have been appropriate in periods of material shortage with their various pressures and tensions resulting from unequal distribution of wealth. Today’s art of the possible is that of designing appropriate systems for any desired possibility - or, the art of anticipating which of today’s ’impossibles’ are likely to be tomorrow’s everyday requirement.
5.143 96
5.144 READINGS LIST
5.145 Phase 4. The Service Industries
5.146 Advances in the Astronautical Sciences. American Astronautical Society. Plenum Press, 1961.
5.147 The Aircraft Year Book. Aircraft Industries Association of America. Lincoln Press.
5.148 Caravan Cities. M. I. Rostovtzeff. Oxford University Press, 1932.
5.149 Community and Privacy. Serge Chermayeff and Christopher Alexander. Doubleday, 1963.
5.150 Development Index. K. Lomberg-Holm and C. Theodore Larson. University of Michigan, 1953.
5.151 Economics and Social Aspects of Educational Planning. United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 1964.
5.152 Economics of Transportation. Russell E. Westmeyer. Prentice-Hall, 1952.
5.153 Education Automation. R. Buckminster Fuller. Southern Illinois University Press, 1963.
5.154 Education, Manpower & Economic Growth: Strategies of Human Resource Development. Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964.
5.155 The Elements of Transportation Economics. G. L. Wilson, Simmons-Boardman Publishing Corporation, 1950.
5.156 Empire and Communications. H. A. Innes. Oxford University Press, 1953.
5.157 Environmental Control of Manned Space Vehicles. Robert E. Smith. Advances in Space Science and Technology, Academic Press, 1963.
5.158 The Geography of the World Air Transport. J. P. Van Zandt. Brookings Institute, 1944.
5.159 Global Geography. George T. Renner and Associates. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1944.
5.160 Home Generation of Power by Photovoltaic Conversion of Solar Energy. J. F. Elliott. Electrical Engineering, IXXC, No. 9, September 1960.
5.161 Housing Mass Produced. Phyllis M. Kelly and Richard W. Hamilton (eds.). Report on Housing Conference at School of Architecture and Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, January 14, 1952.
5.162 An Information Systems Approach to Education. David G. Ryans. Systems Development Corporation, September 23, 1963.
5.163 The International Labor Code. International Labor Organization.
5.164 Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft. Sampson Low, Marston and Company, Mc-Graw-Hill.
5.165 97
5.166 A Life Support System for a Near Earth or Circumlunar Space Vehicle. Garland B. Whisenhunt, Jr. Plenum Press, 1961.
5.167 Manned Space Cabin Systems. Eugene B. Konecci. Advances in Space Science, Academic Press, 1959.
5.168 Man’s Struggle for Shelter in an Urbanizing World. Charles Abrams. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1964.
5.169 Maximum Plausible Energy Contributions from Wind Power. Palmer C. Putnam. Solar Energy Research, University of Wisconsin Press, 1955.
5.170 New Frontiers for Professional Managers. Ralph J. Cordiner. McGraw-Hill, 1956.
5.171 Panel Heating in Polar Buildings. J. M. Stephenson. Air Conditioning, Heating and Ventilating, LIX, No. 6, June 1962.
5.172 Physiology of Man in Space. J. H. U. Brown (ed.). Academic Press, 1963.
5.173 Planes. Aircraft Industries Association of America.
5.174 A Regenerative Life-Support System for Long-Term Space Flight. J. J. Konikoff. Advances in the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. VIII, Plenum Press, 1963.
5.175 A Short History of the World’s Shipping Industry. Ernest C. Gayle. Dial Press, 1933.
5.176 Small Solar Power Plants. M. L. Ghai. Solar Energy Research, University of Wisconsin Press, 1955.
5.177 Space Biology. James S. Hanrahan and David Bushnell. Basic Books, Inc., 1960.
5.178 Spacecraft Life Support Systems. Dan C. Popma. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Langley Research Center, Paper No. CP 63-693, April 1963.
5.179 The Strategy of Economic Development. Albert O. Hirschman. Yale University Press, 1958.
5.180 Total Communications in Education. Dr. Herbert Trotter, Jr. General Telephone & Electronics Corporation.
5.181 Toward the Library of the 21st Century. Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Inc., 1964.
5.182 Transport Facilities, Services and Policies. Emory R. Johnson. D. Appleton-Century Company, 1947.
5.183 The Transportation Industries 1889 1946, a Study of Output, Employment and Productivity. Harold Barger. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1951.
5.184 Waste-Recovery Processes for a Closed Ecological System. Wesley O. Pipes. National Academy of Sciences National Research Council Publication 898, 1961.
5.185 World Aviation Annual. Aviation Research Institute and James Jackson Cabot Professorship of Air Transportation of Norwich University.
5.186 98
5.187 TOWARDS A WORLD UNIVERSITY (Appendix C)
5.188 International Cooperation
5.189 Cooperation between men, and between the nations of men, is the largely invisible side of the human enterprise. Each day brings fresh ’news’ of conflicts and disagreements, whilst the phenomenal growth of human cooperation around the world goes almost unnoticed.
5.190 Man seems to cling desperately to the notion that he survives only by competing fiercely with other men. Yet, his biological continuity is basically a cooperative venture. His individual and social survival has only been possible through the evolution of various forms of cooperation. These have grown outwardly from the family, to the tribe, to the regional/national state and eventually to the present inter-national ’families’ of nations. His survival strength has been based more on collaborative and unified effort than on fiercely competitive diversity.
5.191 This is nowhere more evident than in the growth of knowledge. Science, for example, is in essence a cooperative venture - men, working together, carry forward and build upon the discoveries of other men. Work on the frontiers of knowledge is now conducted on a world scale, through:
5.192 a) increased mobility and migration of scholars from one country to another,
5.193 b) international organizations, conferences, etc. and their journals and papers,
5.194 c) large scale cooperative ventures such as the International Geophysical Year, International Hydrological Decade.
5.195 1965 has been designated International Cooperation Year by the United Nations to mark their twentieth year of operation. During this period there will be a world wide effort to ’direct attention to the common interests of mankind and to accelerate the joint efforts being undertaken to serve them’. This international year is to be viewed not as an isolated effort for one year, but as a spring board for further concerted action.
5.196 Central to the objectives of the I.C.Y. is the idea that man’s accumulated knowledge may be increasingly and more swiftly applied to the solution of his major world problems.
5.197 This aim of making knowledge more universally available, assimilable, and more directly applicable to man’s living requirements has been the long term concern of many scholars. Comenius, the great 17th Century educator, was possibly the first to suggest that this might be best accomplished through a world organization of scholarsź - who would meet regularly to assemble, discuss and find ways to use their collective knowledge for the benefit of all men.
5.198 ź’Pansophiae Prodromus’ (1630) by Comenius (Johann Amos Komensky, 1592-1630). Encyclopedia Britannica 99
5.199 In effect, this would be a ’world university’ - one whose central concern would be with knowledge treated in world terms, and so oriented as to be applied without regard to any restrictive local interest.
5.200 As a concept, it should not be confused with present ’centers for international studies’ etc., already operable in various countries. These are often no more than ’cold war colleges’, concerned with international politico-economic postures and strategies. Their internationalism is, generally, of the 19th century imperial variety and, therefore, of limited ’national’value in the world scene. In considering ’the world college’, we need rather to emphasize the reality of a world which has been made ’one’ - not by political or economic notions - but by scientific and technological fact.
5.201 In earlier discussion of the role of the university in our emerging society, we have suggested that they will increasingly fuse with the present urban/communications centers, or develop on their own, to become the major nerve centers of society.
5.202 As institutions they have an extraordinarily viable potential for influencing and guiding decision making, and providing leadership in society.
5.203 The ecology of universities is remarkable: they reach back to the middle ages and they girdle the Earth. From the plains of Lombardy they have been transplanted to the grey climates of northern Europe, to the African bush, to American cities. They have invaded the ancient civilizations of Egypt and India and driven out institutions deeply rooted in the indigenous culture. They have adapted themselves to totalitarian and to democratic societies, to rural communities and to urban technologies. But through time and space they have preserved something resembling a genetic identity: they remain unique as instruments for investment in man.ź
5.204 This ’ecology’ is now global and the local university may be considered as already functioning as part of a large network extending around the earth. Within this net, ideas, discoveries and new configurations of knowledge are constantly in flow. It may be viewed as a kind of extension of the individual intellectual consciousness into a global ’consciousness’. One contemporary thinkerš has termed this ’natural confluence of grains of thought’ as the noosphere’ - a concept somewhat similar to the biosphereş within which the living organisms of the earth, air and sea are sustained. The noosphere would therefore be the sustaining envelope of human thought around the globe within which knowledge is circulated, recreated and transformed.
5.205 The World University
5.206 There have been a number of recent proposals which recognize this new ecological phenomenon and seek to give it more concrete direction through the formal inauguration of a world university.
5.207 ź’Investment in Man’ by Sir Eric Ashby, FRS, New Scientist (No. 354) August 29, 1963. š"The Phenomenon of Man" by Teilhard de Chardin, The Cloister Library, Harper 1961. şSee ’The Big Alphabets’ Appendix. 100
5.208 The most realistic of these has been advanced by the World Academy of Art and Science. The introduction to their ’Plan for a Transnational World University’ is given below:
5.209 ’Many detailed projects have been worked out for the establishment of a World University, but all of them remain confined to the idea of an actual, physical center, a kind of international but locally determined campus, where people from many countries and races could meet and study.
5.210 We do not think that such an Institute would apply under the present political conditions to the concept of a World University, or would apply to it in the foreseeable future.
5.211 On the other hand, a close scientific cooperation, not bound by geographical limitations of any kind would factually lead to it. In this way, it will be possible to enlarge the traditional concepts of academic work and to combine efforts undertaken in different places of our globe into worldwide research on problems affecting humanity as a whole.’
5.212 The steps towards the realization of this goal envisage, initially, that a number of our present universities will be willing to act as ’world centers’. They would then engage in collaborative research on specific world problems with other centers. As this team organization grows more closely knit, related teaching activities would also be engaged upon - with preparation of suitable text books, course work, etc., leading to appropriate degrees and titles of general validity. The final step would be, ’When the teams (are) sufficiently integrated, the cooperating universities or a great number of them will declare themselves part of the "World University", but not before about 50-100 of them on at least four continents are actively cooperating. This is not to be envisaged in 5-10 years.’
5.213 This program is eminently feasible. It recognizes fully our present capacity for engaging in widely deployed and decentralized world activities, within which individual co-workers may still be in close ’electronic’ contact - daily, hourly or even minute by minute.
5.214 In discussing of the role of such team research, one of the distinguished members of the W.A.A.S. has formulated this in a manner which comes close to defining our "World Design Science Decade" activity, as:
5.215 ’Providing suitable university and industrial cooperative arrangements make it possible for adequate numbers of able young men to learn the advantages of competitive cooperation through participation in team-research within both science and industry, and particularly through participation in such tectonic team-studies as can cause the world’s available supplies of essential minerals to continue to expand from year to year, despite the ravages of depletion, and despite a continuing rise in the world’s total requirements - both for essential mineral raw materials and for mineral sources of energy.’ź
5.216 ź’Tectonic Team-Research, Key to Social Progress and World Peace’ by W. T. Thom, Jr. Paper given before New York Academy of Sciences January 7, 1952.
5.217 101
5.218 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
5.219 Number of International Conferences held
5.220 9,000 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0
5.221 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930-40 1965-75
5.222 9 22 75 149 284 469 1,082 974 2,913 3,655 estimated figures = 8,961 1965-1968 = 2,675 World War I
5.223 Sources: (1) The Story of International Cooperation. J. Avery Joyce. F. Watts Inc. 1964. (2) World List of Future International Meetings. (March 1965- Feb. 1968). Library of Congress, Washington D.C. 1965.
5.224 Numbers of Universities
5.225 240 200 160 120 80 40
5.226 Date 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
5.227 Medieval Saturation Level of Medieval Universities Renaissance Industrial Revolution
5.228 Source: Science since Babylon. D. de Solla Price. Yale University Press, 1961.
5.229 102
5.230 An experimental prototype for a world college has already been tried out, during 1964, in a project sponsored by the Quaker Society of Friends. Twenty-four U.N. countries including the U.S.S.R. and U.S.A. were invited to send their student recommendations. From 300 applicants, 24 were selected to attend the first sessions. In commenting upon this experiment, one of its leading founder members states that:
5.231 ’It suggests a college unlike any now in existence, to which would come students from everywhere in the world, Communist and non-Communist, Western and Eastern, Jew and Arab, Christian and Moslem, colored and white, each of them different, each of them welcomed and cherished because of the difference.
5.232 There the students would be taught, by scholars from across the world, a body of knowledge that would contain, not nationalist histories and ideologies, but the history and culture of man in the entire world.’ź
5.233 As a result of the success of this venture, it is hoped that similar centers may now be set up in various countries. Part of the development of the college includes the possibility of moving part of the student body each six months to a different center of study in another part of the world.
5.234 Associated with these world developments are various others which are of comparable and related interest for the ’World Design Science Decade’ program.
5.235 An International Scientific City
5.236 This project has been briefly referred to in the first chapters of this text. Its key aspect would be the establishment of an extra-territorial ’scientific city’ devoted to the particular study, and provision of solutions, to specific world problems. The initial problem chosen for this first center is world literacy.
5.237 A site has already been offered in Italy and the Italian government appears favorably to the granting of extra territorial rights for this purpose.
5.238 The city itself will be organized as a large scale research, development and mass production facility for a complete range of educational systems. These will be specifically designed to assist the developing nations to swiftly raise the literacy level of their populations and to improve their overall educational system. It will be a’jointly-owned common undertaking, flying neutral colors, based on extra-territorial ground and supported by the most highly developed specialists around the world.’
5.239 In reviewing the reasons for setting up such a city, its founders point out that though many groups of scientists and organizations already exist for the study of world problems, their practical solutions are hindered by various factors. For example,
5.240 a) the absence of a global program of information exchange,
5.241 b) the lack of a world coordinating body,
5.242 źThe Idea of a World College by Harold Taylor, Saturday Review November 14, 1964.
5.243 c) that existing international agencies for such purposes all too often get bogged down through their inter-government relations,
5.244 d) such agencies can rarely avoid political bias in their discussions and actions.
5.245 Their development plan, for utilizing the most up to date audio-visual, electronic automated systems in combating illiteracy calls for ’the largest possible cooperation of the numbers of countries concerned, an industrial production related to the size of the undertaking’ and the highest scientific and technical competence in its execution. They underline also the necessity for the most rapid implementation of the plan so as not to be overtaken by population increase and its attendant pressures etc.
5.246 The practical recognition within this project that the study of the world problems is not enough, nor their local and piecemeal solution, is parallel to our own program. We also state that present world problems are only amenable to those solutions which emerge from the application of the highest scientific and technological knowledge and which may be implemented in terms of the most advanced industrial production available.
5.247 An International Territory of Science. (Antarctica)
5.248 It may be a fitting conclusion to this section to include the following extract from a recent report on the development of the polar regions under terms of international agreement.
5.249 ’Since 1955 a number of international scientific bodies have been set up to organize the systematic study of the Antarctic continent. First within the framework of the Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year and now within that of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), the programmes and their co-ordinated execution have been studied by the representatives of the countries participating in Antarctic Research and systematic exchanges of research workers have been arranged.
5.250 Today, scientific research in Antarctica has been given recognized status by the Antarctic Treaty, ratified by the twelve powers which sent expeditions during the Inter- national Geophysical Year. Freedom of scientific research is guaranteed for a period of thirty years; the contracting parties bind themselves to use the treaty zone–delimited by parallel 60 degrees S. - for peaceful purposes only, to ban nuclear explosions, not to dump radioactive waste in the area, and to exchange their programmes and results.
5.251 This is the first treaty to protect scientific research and leave a non- governmental organization - the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research set up by the International Council of Scientific Unions - full latitude to lay down programmes. It constitutes a precedent, and is a step towards finding a concrete formula for the relations between science and governments. And, by a happy paradox, the continent that is most hostile to man is the one which will do most for the cause of peace.”ź
5.252 źExtract from: The Polar Ice-caps IMPACT. Vol. XIV, No. 4, 1964 (UNESCO) By A. Bauer and C. Lorius 104