1 An Overview
2.1An Overview
2.2 Life on earth has been possible only during the past billions of years through the relatively stable inter-relationships of the variables of climate, the composition of the atmosphere, the oceans, and the life-sustaining qualities of the land surface, the natural reservoirs and cycles.
2.3 Within the thinly spread bio-film of air, earth and water space around the planet, all living organisms exist then in various systems of delicately balanced symbiotic relations. The close tolerances of many of these relationships have only become known to us, generally through their disruption, in recent times.
2.4 For at least 2,000,000 years, men have been reproducing and multiplying on a little automated space ship called earth, in an automated universe in which the entire process is so successfully pre-designed that men did not even know that they were so naive as to think they had invented their own success as they lived egocentrically on a seemingly static earth.ź
2.5 Apart from the comparatively local disturbances of natural cycles occasioned through hunting, herding and primitive agricultural practices, man, until quite recently, did not have the developed capacities to interfere seriously with the major life sustaining processes of the planet. He could live and find food only under conditions restricted by his technological development. The earth surface available to him, with breathable air, water and arable land, was less than one-eighth of the earth area, the remainder – of the seas, mountain peaks, glacial and desert areas – was mainly inaccessible to human habitation or large scale use. Though the evidence of ancient disruption of natural balance is still with us in the form of man-made deserts, e.g., de-forested lands, etc., these were essentially local in their scope and consequences. It is only in the most recent and brief historical period that man has developed sufficient power to be actually, and even more potentially, dangerous to the overall ecosystem – hence, to the maintenance of the human community within that system.
2.6 His acquisition of specifically technological means of gaining control over local aspects of the environ through fire, implements, weapons, etc., is accompanied by the swift increase and geographical spread of human populations. From approximately 20 millions in 3000 B.C., this increased to 500 millions by the 17th Century; in the short interval since then, there has been a five-fold multiplication – to 2,500 million people. This latter and explosive increase occurs most significantly in relation to the introduction of inanimate energies in machine production; to mechanized agriculture and the use of chemical fertilizers, improved sanitation, general health measures and higher life expectancy.
2.7 As each earlier invention had increased the amount of energy and survival advantage available to man, so it had adjusted the ecological balance to favor his increase, with corresponding adjustments in all other living populations within the system. The latest growth change in human population since the onset of the industrial revolutions is, within all previous contexts, an extremely ’abnormal’ one – "It represents, in fact, one of the greatest biological upheavals known in geological, as well as in human history."š In the
2.8 ź"Prospects for Humanity", R. B. Fuller, Saturday Review, Aug. 29, 1964.
2.9 šEnergy Resources, National Academy of Sciences, (U.S.), N.R.C., Pub. no., 1000-D, 1962.
2.10 longer range, of course, this expansion may be viewed as the ’natural’ evolutionary development of an unique species.
2.11 The first fifty years of this new phase, of adaptation and ’species extension through intensive industrialization, seemed to confirm the notion that man could indeed conquer nature – could free himself from the biological laws governing other species’ development. As the series of such technological revolutions has multiplied in frequency and power amplification, this has been somewhat tempered by the equivalent increase of knowledge about the overall effects on the planetary habitat. Both the extended possibilities of human control of the environ and its present and potential limitations have become the focal point of our mid-Twentieth Century dialogues.
2.12 Though it has been obvious, for some time, that we cannot simply extrapolate human development in terms of ’natural laws’, and that Malthusian and other limits may not strictly apply, there are still many central questions remaining. Since man, as a species, side-stepped the normal biological sequence of evolutionary adaptation through his capacity to externalize his intellectual and physical means, in symbolic and technological systems, he is, in this sense, more directly in control of his own future evolvement. The extent of that control, over the environ and over his own ’uncontrolled’ activities within the environ, rests on his capacity to apply himself consciously to an adaptive process which has been largely unconscious.
2.13 Through his intelligence, man has enlarged his ’ecological niche’ to include the whole planet. His activities are no longer constrained to horizontal deployments around its surface but go increasingly into and beyond the atmosphere, beneath the oceans, and include the transformation of vast amounts of the material resources of the planet to his purposes.
2.14 The mechanical revolution . . . brought into use strata of the earth previously beyond the reach of man. The subsurface was made to yield its wealth both of fossil fuels, the sources of inanimate energy itself, and of the metals required for the application and control of this new energy. Moreover, man pushed his frontiers upward as well. The air became a source of nitrogen; sunshine itself could be more fully used; radioactivity was discovered; and the energy of moving water came to be exploited in different ways and, hence, more fully. Generalizing, one might say that man, pushed the exploitation of land vertically, both downward and upward. Land thus ceased to be identical with surface, with a thin layer of soil or surface minerals. It was no longer two dimensional; it spread out into the third dimension, to say nothing of the fourth dimension of the physicist.ş
2.15 The scale of these activities and the expansion, and proliferation, of man-made systems now approach magnitudes in which they directly affect larger and larger areas, sectors and relationships of the overall ecosystem.
2.16 şIntroduction to World Resources, Erich W. Zimmermann, ed. Henry L. Hunker, (Harper & Row, New York, 1964).
2.17 An Overview 3
2.18 Negative and Positive Aspects
2.19 Where such extended controls of man have increased survival advantage for greater numbers of men, and thus forwarded the human enterprise, we may count the overall balance till now as favourable. Our next priority – toward enormously extending such survival advantage to the greatest number of men – requires an even more rapid and extensive growth in scientific and technological undertakings on a world scale. This will require taking cognizance, not only of the great positives of our recent acquisition of sufficient material power to carry out such a task – but also, an immense stocktaking of the negatives which are inherent in the present lack of conscious integration and planning of our major technological systems.
2.20 Such systems now comprise not only local industrialization in the sense of mass production factory facilities, but all the globally interrelated systems complexes of transportation, communication, production and distribution facilities. There is no longer a division possible between factory and farm or, in this sense, town and country; all are closely interlocked in a close symbiotic relation – a man-made ecology which we now see, almost for the first time, as an integrally functioning ’organic’ sector within the overall ecosystem.
2.21 Agriculture, until recently, viewed as an independent sector of human activity from industry, is now more clearly viewed as a frontier area of scientific and technological attention. It is one, particularly, in which traditional modes are no longer adequate to the complexity and size of immediate requirements.
2.22 Though the growth of population has been accompanied by more intensive cultivation and higher food yields per acre, the amount of presently useable soil per capita is declining, and, in many areas, becomes impoverished through ill use. As the historical pattern of deforestation, which produced many of the great desert areas, continues, there is added to this the increasing amount of arable land claimed for building dams, roads, industrial installations, mining, etc., – all of the necessary uses of an increasing technological system. In the United States alone, urbanization and transportation have been calculated to draw more than a million acres of soil, each year, from cultivation.
2.23 The decreasing amount of land per capita, however, though often cited as an obvious limiting factor of human expansion, is a relative measure – crucial only during our presently critical transition period. The actual amount of land surface available, and still unused, may be gauged from the fact, for example, that the entire population of the United States occupies much less than 10% of the land area. Also, and importantly, man’s increasing ecological mobility suggests that fixed land habitation may only be one of a number of alternative forward patterns. In relation to food yield – many more people may be fed off the land than on it, in terms of agricultural occupation.
2.24 The depletion of animal populations has also been considerable – a recent estimate suggests that 107 kinds of mammals and 100 species of birds, as well as a vastly greater number of plant species and lesser animals, have been rendered extinct in the past nineteen hundred years. Of these losses, 70% have occurred in the past century and have been mainly due to human agencies – less through hunting than destruction of habitat.
2.25 Other uses of the earth, incident on our developed technological capacities, have also increased enormously in the past hundred years. As against approximately 50 tons of raw materials per person consumed in 1880, we now use over 300 tons per person annually. When this is translated into amounts of iron, coal, oil, wood and other products ’harvested’ from the earth, processed, and redistributed elsewhere, the operation becomes of considerable ecological magnitude. For example, of all the coal mined by 1960, only 20% was before
2.26 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 6
2.27 WORLD FOOD AND POPULATION
2.28 RATES OF POPULATION GROWTH BY ECONOMIC REGION less developed regions more developed regions
2.29 WORLD REGIONAL FOOD PRODUCTION: TOTAL & PER CAPITA less developed regions Total Food Per Capita Food developed regions Total Food Per Capita Food
2.30 MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES, 1963 RICE: lbs. per acre WHEAT: bu. per acre Japan United States Taiwan Korea Ceylon Indonesia Pakistan Malagasy Rep. Burma Brazil Thailand India U. K. W. Germany France Mexico Italy Yugoslavia U. S. Argentina Canada Australia Turkey Pakistan
2.31 Adapted from: (1) "Road Maps of Industry," National Industrial Conference Board, Inc., No. 1566, March 15, 1967. (2) "Population and Food Supply," Conrad Taenber, The Annals of the American Academy of Political & Social Science, January 1967. p. 77.
2.32 1900, and the remaining 80% since that time. The energies used in the extraction, processing, transportation and use cycles of all the industrial materials are obtained mainly from burning the fossil fuels – each ton of which used releases large amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere. From 1860 to 1960, this has been calculated to have increased the atmosphere carbon dioxide concentration by 14%; during the eight years from 1954 to 1962, the average rate of increase was 5%. Sulphur oxides, a more immediately harmful aerial pollutant in highly industrialized countries, is expected to show a 75% increase over present critical levels by 1980. A single fossil fuel, power generating plant may emit several hundred tons of sulphur dioxide per day and, under certain weather conditions, locally overburden the air of a whole city. Then this effect is increased by larger multiple fuel uses in dense urban concentrations, the results may be lethally apparent – four thousand persons died, directly or indirectly from one week of such intense pollution in London in 1952, and one thousand in 1956. The annual emission into the atmosphere of such pollutants, other than carbon dioxide, is estimated at 125 million tons for the United States alone. In addition to aerial pollution; it has also been calculated that certain elements, e.g., argon, neon, krypton, etc., essential to life maintenance are now being ’mined’ out of the atmosphere by industrial operations at a faster rate than they are being produced by natural processes.
2.33 When we speak of increasing the per capita availability of industrial energies and extracting higher performance per pound from our metallic resources, these are key factors in the re-design of our use systems. Even if present generating and production power technologies were converted 50 per cent to nonfossil fuels, it has been estimated that pollutant by-products from the reaminder would still double present levels every twenty years.
2.34 The dependence of one sixth of the world’s food supply on ’artificial’ nitrogen from the chemical industry is another factor in the overall ecosystem system function. There is a tendency to separate agriculture from industry in everyday thinking, but the image of the farmer as conserver, and industry as the spoiler, of nature is no longer true – if it ever was. To make each million tons of such nitrogenous fertilizer annually, we use, in direct and related industries, a million tons of steel and five million tons of coal. Some 50 million tons of such support nitrogen are estimated to be required annually by 2000 A.D. The amounts of other agricultural chemicals which will require equally massive support technologies, to further maintain and increase crop yields, is only now becoming apparent.
2.35 The irony, in terms of our present ecological mismanagement, is that in making the chemical fertilizers and other nutrients to render the land more productive, we indirectly destroy the crops through the byproducts of similar industrial processes. Each calorie of food produced in highly mechanized agriculture requires roughly another calorie of fuel to power tractors, harvesters, processing and transportation. Such fuels are usually the fossil fuels used in internal combustion engines and contribute further sources of aerial pollutants to industrial smoke.
2.36 Vegetation damage has been caused in at least half the states in the nation (U.S.) by photo-chemical smog, ozone, sulphur dioxide, fluorides, or ethylene . . .Livestock damage is usually subtle and chronic . . .The extent of loss of future forest yield that can be attributed to polluted air is not fully known.
2.37 Waste Management and Control, National Academy of Sciences (U.S.), N.R.C., Pub. no. 1400, 1966, p. 127.
2.38 Water, a key resource in daily life, agriculture and industry is also in critical balance in many world regions. Approximately 95 per cent of fresh waters are presently used at a greater rate than their precipitation replacement in ground surface waters. Though much water use is of a multi-purpose ’cycling’ nature, and therefore differs from the more single use/discard pattern of other resources, the bulk increases in each use now begins to strain the storage, replenishment and natural recycling capacities of many areas. Population growth and urban concentration have been considerable factors of in- crease – in the United States, consumption has risen from 40 billion gallons per day in 1900 to over 300 billion gallons in the 1960’s. The average Western per capita use is 150 gallons each day. Industry increasingly requires vast quantities of process water, from:
2.39 7-25 gallons to produce 1 gallon of gasoline 25,000 gallons to produce 1 ton of steel 50,000 gallons to produce 1 ton of paper 250,000 gallons to produce 1 ton of acetate 600,000 gallons to produce 1 ton of synthetic rubber.
2.40 Agriculture still accounts directly for 50 per cent of all usage, requiring 400-500 pounds of water for each pound of dry plant produce. The water to specific crop-ratio varies considerably – but, in general, the lesser developed, agriculturally-based regions consume as much water per capita as the technologically advanced.
2.41 When air, water and earth uses are compounded with mounting waste and sewage disposal, the emphasis on the required re-design of all such human systems becomes acute. The natural systems of air/water/soil purification are now so overburdened, through in- crease and misuse in many areas of the world, that concern is now expressed about their overall malfunction for greater areas. These are no longer ’local’ problems as each sub- sector of the overall ecosystem eventually effects other sectors if misused on a large enough scale.
2.42 Waste disposal, even in the most advanced countries is still archaic. Those methods used in our larger urban concentrations are little improved from the traditional systems evolved for much smaller and less waste-productive communities of the pre- industrial period. The average city of half million people now disposes of 50 million gallons of sewage daily and produces solid wastes of about 8 pounds per person each day.
2.43 Pollutants are the residues of things we make use of once and throw away . . .As the earth becomes more crowded there is no longer an ’away’ . . .our whole economy is based on taking natural resources, converting them into things that are consumer products, selling them to consumers and then forgetting about them. But there are no consumers – only users. The user employs the product, sometimes changes it in form, but he does not consume he just discards it . . .One person’s trash basket is another person’s living space.
2.44 Ibid.
2.45 An Overview
2.46 The use of water courses, of rivers, streams and lakes, has also been grossly affected, not only in the ’discard/residue’ process of sewage disposal from cities and the increasing discharges of industrial wastes, but from intensified agricultural practices. Large amounts of soil additives in the form of fertilizers and chemical nutrients are washed off the lands through rainfall, irrigation and drainage into the natural water courses where they disturb the aquatic life balances. The undue growth of algae and plant growths decreases the oxygen supply for fish and other organisms thus attenuating the self-renewal of the water system. Again, such problems are not localized. In the case of pesticide ’run offs’ and other toxic agents, introduced into upper river reaches, their concentrated effects may only be felt thousands of miles away, e.g., the massive fish kills, of around 12 million, in the Mississippi and Gulf of Mexico in recent years.
2.47 Inadvertent poisoning of organic life through the unplanned and uncoordinated introduction of various toxins into the environ is not restricted to plants and animals. The effects on man are, in many cases, greater – but receive less direct attention. Some 500 new chemical compounds, each year, go into widespread usage in the highly industrialized countries with little planned attention to their long term deleterious effects. Without going into the more publicized aspects of radioactive fallout, a simpler case may be adduced of ’lead fallout’ – from tetra ethyl lead in auto fuel additives. After almost fifty years of rapidly increasing use, such lead contamination is now being monitored at levels approaching toxicity in waters, crops and the human system.
2.48 Returning to the more positive aspects of man’s ecological activities, it is necessary to redress, in part, the semantic bias on ’pollutants, garbage and poisons’. This usually tends to suggest vast quantities of alien substances being injected into an otherwise perfectly functioning system. Rather – pollutants are as we perceive and designate them: poisons are natural substances ’out of place’, or in excess of tolerable levels. The gases and dust of forest fires, volcanic ashes, pollens, marsh effluents, etc., are all ’natural’ pollutants of the natural environments. Our concern here is to more fully appraise the role of man-made systems which are also natural systems in the overall integral functioning of the ecosystem.
2.49 The problem aspects which we have stressed are only problems through lack of ’design’ and more thoroughly anticipatory planning. The naturally occurring forces operative in the environ can be more selectively and systematically used to absorb pollutants, reduce sewage/garbage and reprocess discards and residue on a much vaster scale.
2.50 Our lack of adequate knowledge and equal lack of foresight and control are the main factors which overburden the natural regulatory systems and lead to their malfunction and breakdown. Some large scale sectors, such as the global atmosphere, have enormous absorptive and regenerative capacities – others, such as a local soil area, forest, lake or watershed are more precariously balanced and may not be renewable or recoverable in anything but very long range terms.
2.51 Some of the mandatory requirements for the merely adequate maintenance of the ecosystem are already clear. We need to re-design our major social, industrial and agricultural undertakings toward their more efficient and systematic functioning – as ecologically operating systems, rather than ’piecemeal’ aggregates of unrelated processes. This would apply not only to environmental controls – such as houses, cities and other facilities – but to all of our environmental control facilities which now comprise within themselves a vast ’socio-agri-industrial ecology’. We need to refashion this system so that it can serve many more people at better standards and at higher performance levels than ever before:
2.52 a) to ’recycle’ the metals and materials in the system – so that there is a swifter turnover with the least lag in scrapping and processing cycles. In high grade technological process, each use cycle tends, through overall development, to achieve more, not less, performance per invested unit of materials.
2.53 b) to employ increasingly our ’income’ energies of solar, water, wind, tidal and nuclear power, rather than the hazardous and depletive fossil fuels. The latter represent major ’capital’ investments which once used are not replaceable. They are too precious to ’burn up’ in our currently prodigal fashion, but they may be more efficiently – and more fractionally – employed in indirect conversion to plastics, foodstuffs, etc.
2.54 c) to refashion our food cycle that we may more swiftly augment the present starvation diets of more than half the developing world. We need, however, to go also beyond emergency satisfaction of immediate needs toward the more extensive ecological re-design of our whole agri-industrial system; employing the most efficient ’natural’ means of food conversion through the plant/animal chains and the possibili- ties inherent in microbiological, biosynthetic and other processes.
2.55 d) to set up eco-monitoring and control centers which will act as ’early warning’ systems in relation to our large scale scientific and technological undertakings – analysing and evaluating their immediate and largest range effects on the overall ecological ma- trix and their positive and negative implications for the quality of the human environ.
2.56 These are but a few of our urgent tasks!
2.57 In essence, we have to re-design the presently chaotic elements of our developed and ’externalized’ human metabolic system into a series of ’closed’ ecological loops phased in with, and taking gainful symbiotic advantage of, the overall ecosystem. The wastes of one type of production cycle become the raw materials of another, thus energy converted and dissipated for one purpose may serve many more. The noxious ’garbage’ of several processes may be valuable ’nutrients’ materials in another sector. Each component sub- system now requires critical evaluation and re-design in terms of such higher performance and more economical function. The directly quantitative gains implied in this re-design are also qualitative in terms of more ’useful’ function, in the reduction of pollution hazards, in less ’destruction’ of the natural environ – and in the increased social and physical ad- vantages available to all men.
2.58 Our thinking must obviously go beyond immediate preoccupation with locally vested interest in the prior solution of this or that isolated problem! The only design context for all of our major problems is the global context. The range of our design thinking is that which may extrapolate human ecological requirements, beyond subsistence survival, to the maximal advantage of all. It must also accept the challenge of designing not only for ’tomorrow’ but for a century of tomorrows.
2.59 This may often entail ’non-design’ as well as re-design. The scale of our present technological capacities are such that we cannot act without more accurate gauges of their immediate and largest range effects. Where it may be pleaded, for example, by special interest groups that we have enough coal, oil and gas reserves for 500 years, any expanded
2.60 use at the present rate and level of technology is obviously precluded by their adverse side effects on the ecosystem. In such cases, a resource, an invention or process – so evaluated as to be dangerous to the maintenance of the life systems – should be left in ’storage’ – until a more evolved society may use it less prodigally and less dangerously!
2.61 Such an orientation leads to further considerations involving our global, rather than local commitments. As stated, no large scale human problem may now be solved outside of this context. Air, water and soil pollution are not local – the air is not restrained within municipal or national boundaries, nor are the waters.
2.62 Where massive imbalances occur – whether bio-physical in terms of earthquakes and other natural catastrophes or socio-physical in terms of hunger, disease and the catastrophe of war – we need to recall that the resources of the planet can no more belong, by geographical chance, to any individual, corporation, country or national group than the air we breathe. National ownership of a key watershed, mineral deposit or scientific discovery is as farcical, and dangerous, a proposition as our supposedly national sovereignty of an ’air space’.
2.63 The evolutionary transition towards world man now faces an analogous situation to that of emerging national or empire man in the preceeding two centuries. Then, the local ideological issues revolved around national control of public health, of child welfare, education, pure food and water legislation, etc. The same arguments now prevail, at the world level, regarding the rights and privileges of individual nations – as if they were isolated, self-contained and wholly autonomous physical and social entities. Though such a fiction may be a comforting ’prop’ for local individual and social identity in a rapidly changing world, it is dangerously removed from reality.
2.64 The scale of our global systems of production/distribution, communication/transportation, etc., has now gone beyond the capacities of any single national or even regional group to wholly sustain and operate. They require, and are dependent upon, the resource range of the entire planet for the metals and materials of which they are built – and in which no nation is now self-sufficient. Each system is intricately and complexly interlocked with all others – production with transport, with communications, etc. The whole is increasingly dependent on the global interchange, not only of physical resources and finished products, but of the ’knowledge pool’ – of research, development, technical and managerial expertise and the highly trained personnel who sustain and expand this.
2.65 Ours is possibly one of the most critical periods in human experience up till this time. Poised in the transition between one kind of world to another, we are literally on the hinge of a great transformation in the whole human condition. The next fifty years may be the most crucial in all of man’s history. We have few guides to follow and almost no historical precedents. "Many of the old moralities have suddenly become immoralities of the most devastating character." All of our previously local actions are now writ large on a planetary scale. The knowledge with which we might make the correct decisions is barely adequate – yet our gross ecological errors may reverberate for many generations.
2.66 "Truth and Consequences in a New Era," R. C. Cook, Population Bulletin, Vol. XXII, No. 4, Nov. 1966, (U.S.).
2.67 10 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 6
2.68 WORLD POPULATION AREAS
2.69 Oceania South Asia Africa East Asia Soviet Union Europe North America Latin America
2.70 UNITED NATIONS POPULATION AREA SCHEMATIC on R. Buckminster Fuller’s Dymaxion Projection
2.71 The schematic world map above and the list opposite show the country and regional groupings used in the U.N. population projections discussed in the Population Bulletin cited below.
2.72 An Overview
2.73 COUNTRIES IN WORLD POPULATION AREAS
2.74 Oceania AUSTRALIA & N. ZEALAND MELANESIA New Guinea Papua POLYNESIA & MICRONESIA Fiji Islands Western Samoa
2.75 East Asia MAINLAND REGION China (Mainland) Hong Kong Mongolia JAPAN OTHER EAST ASIA (Korea (N. & S.)) China (Taiwan) Ryukyu Islands
2.76 Soviet Union
2.77 North America Canada United States
2.78 Latin America TROPICAL S. AMERICA Brazil Colombia Peru Venezuela Ecuador Bolivia British Guiana MIDDLE AMERICA Mexico Guatemala El Salvador Honduras Nicaragua Costa Rica Panama TEMPERATE S. AMERICA Argentina Chile Uruguay Paraguay CARIBBEAN Cuba Haiti Dominican Republic Puerto Rico Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago
2.79 South Asia MIDDLE SOUTH ASIA India Pakistan Iran Afghanistan Ceylon Nepal Bhutan Sikkim Maldive Islands SOUTH EAST ASIA Indonesia Viet-Nam (N. & S.) Philippines Thailand Burma Malaysia Singapore Cambodia Laos SOUTH WEST ASIA Turkey Iraq Saudi Arabia Syria Yemen Israel Jordan Lebanon Cyprus Kuwait
2.80 Africa WESTERN AFRICA Nigeria Ghana Upper Volta Mali Ivory Coast Senegal Guinea Niger Sierra Leone Dahomey Togo Liberia Mauritania Gambia EASTERN AFRICA Ethiopia Tanzania Kenya Uganda Mozambique Madagascar Southern Rhodesia
2.81 Nyasaland Zambia Rwanda Burundi Somalia Mauritius MIDDLE AFRICA Congo (Leopoldville) Angola Cameroon Chad Central African Rep. Congo (Brazzaville) Gabon NORTHERN AFRICA Egypt (U.A.R.) Sudan Morocco Algeria Tunisia Libya SOUTHERN AFRICA South Africa
2.82 Europe WESTERN EUROPE Germany (West) France Netherlands Belgium Austria Switzerland Luxembourg SOUTHERN EUROPE Italy Spain Yugoslavia Portugal Greece Albania Malta EASTERN EUROPE Poland Romania Germany (East) Czechoslovakia Hungary Bulgaria NORTHERN EUROPE United Kingdom Sweden Denmark Finland Norway Iceland Ireland
2.83 Source: "World Population Projections 1965-2000," Population Bulletin, Population Reference Bureau, Inc., October 1965. pp. 94-95.
2.84 An Overview 12
2.85 READINGS LIST GENERAL
2.86 Achievements of Western Civilization. Joan Thompson. Harper & Row, 1965.
2.87 The Art of Conjecture. B. De Jouvenel, Basic Books, Inc. New York.
2.88 Change and Habit. Arnold J. Toynbee. Oxford University Press. New York, 1966.
2.89 Chronology of the Modern World. Neville Williams. Barrie and Rockliff, 1966.
2.90 Computers and Thought. E. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman. (eds.) McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1963.
2.91 Global Impacts of Applied Microbiology. Mortimer P. Starr. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, 1964.
2.92 The Human Condition. Hannah Arendt. Doubleday Anchor Books. 1959.
2.93 The Hungry Planet. Georg Borgstrom. MacMillan Co. New York, 1959.
2.94 Ideas and Integrities. R. Buckminster Fuller. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1963.
2.95 Impacts of Western Man. Wm. Woodruff. St. Martins Press. New York, 1966.
2.96 Information. Scientific American (ed.) W.H. Freeman and Co. London, 1966.
2.97 Man and His Future. G. Wolstenholme (ed.) Little, Brown and Co. (Canada)Ltd., 1963.
2.98 Man on Earth. S.P.R. Charter. Angel Island Publications, Inc. 1962.
2.99 Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth. William L. Thomas, Jr. (ed.) The University of Chicago Press, 1956.
2.100 The Meaning of the Twentieth Century. Kenneth Boulding. Harper & Row. New York, 1964.
2.101 Men, Machines and History. S. Lilley. Lawrence and Wishart. London, 1965.
2.102 Modern Science and Technology. R. Colborn. Van Nostrand Co. New Jersey, 1965.
2.103 The Next Hundred Years. Harrison Brown, James Bonner and John Weir. Viking Press,1957.
2.104 Nine Chains to the Moon. R. Buckminster Fuller. Southern Illinois University Press, 1963.
2.105 Our Polluted World. John Perry. Franklin Watts, Inc. New York, 1967.
2.106 Prospects for Humanity. Saturday Review. August, September, October, 1964.
2.107 The Rich Nations and the Poor Nations. Barbara Ward. W.W. Norton and Co. Inc. 1962.
2.108 The Science of Man in the World Crisis. R. Linton (ed.) Columbia University Press, 1945.
2.109 13 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 6
2.110 Science and the Future of Mankind. Hugo Boyko (ed.) University of Indiana Press, 1964.
2.111 Science in our Lives. Ritchie Calder. New American Library. New York, 1962.
2.112 Scientific Basis for World Civilization. L.J. Baranski, Ph.D. Christoper Publication, 1960.
2.113 Scientific Change. A.C. Crombie. Basic Books Inc. New York, 1963.
2.114 Statistical Yearbook 1965. United Nations. New York, 1966.
2.115 Three Worlds of Development. I.L. Horowitz. Oxford University Press, 1966.
2.116 2000+. John McHale. "Architectural Design". London, 1967.
2.117 World Balance Sheet. Robert R. Doane. Harper Brothers. New York, 1967.