5 Towards the Future
6.1Towards the Future
6.2 The technological systems which we have evolved are now global in their operation and their efficient ecological operation is now interlocked with the maintenance of the entire human family on the planet.
6.3 Our present level of technological operations already interferes substantially with the natural cycles of energy and materials in the biosphere within which all of our major life processes are sustained – and we now probe beyond these toward outer space.
6.4 Is it too soon to inquire if these factors, plus others, may be contributing to an upset of nature’s delicate balance? Are we slowly overturning the oxygen-carbon dioxide system upon which all life is dependent? Is that cycle being disturbed by high oxygen consumption and low oxygen yield? Are we thus shifting certain basic weather patterns upon which our various civilizations have come to depend?ź
6.5 It is patently no longer adequate to consider any such ’problems’ in isolation or with sole regard to their unilateral solution at local, regional or national levels – whether they be pollution, hunger, lack of adequate shelter, population pressures, etc.
6.6 The minimal set of basic questions we need to ask ranges far beyond those required for local solutions to our various problems. Many of the problems are only problems because of a parochial concern with this, or that, economically or politically ’convenient’ set of solutions. There are no wholly local solutions any more – as there are no major human problems which are not also global. The basic questions revolve around the overall ecological maintenance of the entire human community.
6.7 What are the optimal conditions for human society on earth? There is obviously no fixed answer to such a question. But there are the various physical factors of adequacy in food, shelter, health, general welfare, and the concomitant access to the individually preferred physical and social facilities which make life meaningful and enjoyable. We have gradually arrived at sets of such conditions, as in the various bills of human rights – like that of the United Nations.
6.8 Whether such ’ground rules’ may be practical or not, we do in effect approach them, however tentatively, when we try to legislate for some human welfare or environmental control measure. The time is overdue for much more than tentative or local measures. To design our way forward through our present critical transitions, we need to adopt some more positive and operational indicators of the optimal conditions for the fulfillment of human life. By this, we do not mean optimal determinants which may be valid for all time and all people, i.e., some set of absolutes. The variable and changing nature of human values make this not only undesirable, but unrealistic, in that one set of values in development may considerably modify others. But such considerations may still be flexibly accommodated and yet allow adequate definition.
6.9 We may tackle this in other ways by asking various fundamental questions about our planetary society. Which activities are most inimical to this; which more positively sustain, and forward, the human enterprise?
6.10 ź2nd Progress Report of the Subcommittee on Science Research and Development: Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. 89th Congress, 1966.
6.11 What are the physical limits and constraints in the overall ecosystem, with regard to our growing technological systems?
6.12 What are the relevant human limits, e.g., the biological limits; air, food, water; temperature, space, speed and noise tolerances.
6.13 What are the irreplaceable resource limits, e.g., both the physical energy and material resources, and the human, individual, social, and genetic resources?
6.14 In many ways, the core of our discussion has revolved around the same enquiry, repeated in different ways:
6.15 What are the physical operational parameters for the planet – the ecological or housekeeping rules which govern human occupancy?
6.16 These are very large questions, but they are those to which we must now apply ourselves – in many different ways and over a very long period. Some of the answers we already know, in part. Others are, in some senses, ultimately unanswerable – that they may be so is the more reason to ask them – if only to probe the limits of our know- ledge.
6.17 We are now developing the technological capacity to deal with such questions, even on the global level, via the computer and its ancillary technologies. It is, perhaps, not entirely irrelevant that ’cybernetics’, as used to describe this new field of human enquiry, was derived from the Greek word for ’steersman’. It is precisely such large scale ’navigational’ aids which we require to help guide our planetary undertakings forward.
6.18 A New Symbiosisš
6.19 Implicit also within both individual and social relations to cybernetics is the emer- gence of a new symbiotic growth in the ecosystem of the planet. Other types of machines are merely mechanical extensions, ’there is only one organism – man – and the rest are there to help him’.ş
6.20 But recently, as in his natural symbiotic relations with plants and animals, man’s relationship to cybernetic systems has been subtly changing, towards a more closely woven interdependency resembling his other ecological ties.
6.21 This point has often been alluded to in terms of intelligent machines domi.. ’ing man, but the possibility is more clearly that of the type of organic partnership which characterizes his other ’natural’ relations.
6.22 The most pervasive aspect of the developing man/computer symbiosis, and the most immediately important in large-scale societal effects, has been the automation of production and services in the advanced economies. Man is clearly no longer required as a mechanical
6.23 šExtract from "2000+", J. McHale, (special issue of Architectural Design, London, February 1967).
6.24 şThe Rational Behaviour of Mechanically Extended Men, J. D. North, Boulton Paul Aircraft Ltd., United Kingdom, September 1954.
6.25 Towards the Future
6.26 energy converter, as part of an assembly line or as a routine worker. Many such tasks have been taken over by automated machine – process and product wealth may be generated with less and less input of human energy, intervention and decision. This aspect of automation is only the more visible and easier to grasp.
6.27 The extent to which automated systems have now assumed the operation of the invisible metabolics of advanced economies is more far-reaching. Apart from completely automated factories and continentally linked automatic inventory dispatch and control operations, the whole energy conversion and transmission system of vast areas are increasingly under automated control. Over 80 per cent of the U.S.’s electrical capcity is, for example, controlled at present by automatic dispatch systems.
6.28 The processes of control everywhere they are encountered, that is, in living organisms, social organisms, and the psyche, lead in their development to automation. Automation creates that simplification without which further development would be impossible. Their control of the activity of the inner organs is completely automated and does not require attracting the attention. In the learning process we constantly encounter the phenomenon of automation. Even when learning to walk a system of automatic control arises in our consciousness. Habits without which the successful execution of any kind of complex activity would not be possible represent the working out of automatic responses.
6.29 The extension of automated control measures to the operation of national economies is being developed in many countries and is foreseeable for the planetary economy in the link-up of world airlines, energy and communication networks. This type of control design requires prior large-scale simulation. Such simulation is much the same as we do in our head when confronted with problems of decision-making under various degrees of uncertainty. We review and organize information on the problem, assign different contingencies to various possible actions and choose the optimal strategic combination of actions. These mental simulations, or models, plus the results of action based upon them, become memory/experience components in future decision-making. By organic automation, or habit, they are incorporated as patterns in our nervous systems.
6.30 The use of the computer in the simulation of processes with large numbers of interacting variables is now commonplace. In large-scale economic, business and politico-military simulations, actions which might take weeks or months to occur in real time may be run through in a few days.
6.31 Prerequisites for such simulation, for increasing the predictive capacity of the organism in its environment, are adequate information and communications. It is interesting, therefore, to observe the exponential growth of information accumulation, and the parallel expansion of information and communication systems to the global level.
6.32 The most advanced development of such systems at present is, of course, in support of military prediction, planning and control procedures. When ICBMs may be launched to
6.33 Cybernetics and Problems of Development, B. V. Akhlibininsky and N. I. Khrallenko, (Lenizdat Publishing House, 1963), U.S. Dept. of Commerce, OTS Report 64-215-17.
6.34 strike anywhere in the world in less than 30 minutes, the factors of speed in information handling of incoming data and outgoing corrections of hour by hour posture are enormous. Add to this the given figures of operational air forces of 15,000 aircraft, 1000 missiles and a quarter of a million personnel, and we have a global operation of considerable size. The facilities developed match up to the requirement. Operational data referring to the location and state of the above components, to global weather conditions, intelligence, materials inventory, transport, location, is constantly being fed into such centers, and may within seconds be flashed on screens for simultaneous viewing of its complex relationships. Aircraft in flight may be contacted swiftly anywhere in the world and direct telephone contact made immediately through one handset with more than 70 subordinate centers spread halfway around the world.
6.35 Such worldwide systems are working examples of Marshall McLuhan’s statement, ’Today, after more than a century of electric technology, we have extended our central nervous system itself in a global embrace, abolishing both time and space as far as our planet is concerned’.
6.36 The first recorded voice was heard from a satellite only eight years ago; four years later the first live telephone, television, data and facsimile transmission was made between Europe and the U.S. via Telstar I and II. Since then, Syncom, Echo, and the Early Bird satellite relays have transmitted between Russia, Japan, the U.S. and Europe.
6.37 The less obvious uses of such satellite repeaters, observers and relay stations is their direct scientific value. One of the latest of these, Nimbus II, specifically designed to monitor weather information, was sent aloft in May 1966 for a six-month work period. Its set of Vidicon automatic picture transmission cameras will photograph not only cloud cover and weather, but anything as small as a half a mile in length on the earth surface. Pictures will be relayed automatically to 150 ground stations in 27 countries. This example may seem much less dramatic than the TV transmission of human space walks, and moon surfaces viewed recently, but information gained by such workaday satellites may be of greater direct value to the solution of various world problems. The World Weather Watch scheme, proposed in 1965 as part of the UN International Cooperation Year, seeks the combination of such satellite reported data with global weather observation at various atmospheric levels, a fast world-wide high capacity communication system and a large size computer facility containing an adequate ’numerical model of the atmosphere’.
6.38 With the World Weather Watch data, an adequate computer and global mathematical model, a vast array of experiments on weather and climate modification can be performed by numerical computation rather than in nature . . .full effect and potential hazard can be determined without risk to life or property. For example, a dam can be ’built’ across the Bering Strait for an infinitesimal fraction of its real life cost, and we can evaluate its effect on the Kamchatka or Canada wheat growing season . . .we can model a megalopolis and its atmospheric cesspool, examine the extent to which it acts as an inadvertent weather modifier, then ’clean up’ the atmosphere and see the difference. We can do this without taxes, political strife, vast engineering expense – in a computer.
6.39 Information: U.S. Strategic Air Command, 294-2544/4433.
6.40 "National Center for Atmospheric Research", W. O. Roberts, Science, Vol. 152, No. 3119, April 1966.
6.41 Towards the Future
6.42 In addition to conventional photography from satellites, multispectral sensing is also being employed with the infra-red, ultraviolet and other wavelengths such as X-rays and radar. Using infra-red, for example, it would be possible to have detailed surveys of traffic in and out of cities, of human occupancy of building through their heat patterns. Numbers of cattle on grazing range, changes in forests, fields and even animal bird migrations could be easily surveyed.
6.43 These developed capacities for swift ’planetary stocktaking are further amplified by such programs as the International Geophysical Year and others sponsored by the U.N.
6.44 In 1966 the UN Secretary-General called upon Canada, Chile, France, the Phillippines, the Soviet Union and the United States to endorse a proposed five year programme of world surveys of minerals, energy and water resources. This will be a first step towards ’an orderly systematic approach to natural resources development in the world and the developing countries in particular’. The cost of this world resources survey of non-agricultural resources is set at $10 million spread over the five-year period. The nine survey areas are:
6.45 World iron ore resources. Important non-ferrous metals Selected mines in developing countries with view to increasing ore reserves and production through application of modern technology. Offshore minerals in developing areas. Water needs and resources in potentially water short developing countries. Potential for development in international rivers. Potential geothermal energy resources in developing countries. Oil shale resources. Needs for small-scale power generation in developing countries.
6.46 In developing the theme of the new symbiotic relation of man to his most advanced machines, we have emphasized those aspects of technological means, ’that have been pressing humanity so rapidly towards a closely interconnected species, a species in full possession of the world and its abundance and with an adequate capacity for control and survival, that are reaching towards more mature and stable forms in this generation.’ As earlier stated, where tribal man became disoriented when separated from his local tribe, and early city and local state man could barely conceptualize his immediate surrounding environment, we are now in a period when men think casually in terms of the entire planet.
6.47 UN Press Release, E. C. 2308, April 1966.
6.48 The Step to Man, John R. Platt, September 1964.
6.49 131 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 6
6.50 Social Design
6.51 Whilst our primary concern here has been with ’physical’ technologies, the more crucial aspects of future planning are now more clearly non-technological. The hardware with which to solve our main physical problems is largely given; the ’software’, or social technology, through which we may apply our developed technical capacities to their fullest advantage, is still to be designed.
6.52 The idea of social design is almost always negatively conceived – especially when paired with the application of scientific and technological means. There is the assumption that such ’design’, or planning, introduced more directly into social affairs is a threat to individual freedom of action. But freedom and liberty are, in essence, the liberty to choose, the freedom to make choices! We may well reflect that such ’freedoms’ only become real for the majority of men when the industrial revolution began to provide the material life means which freed man from margin survival constraint. In general, such continued technological development makes for more freedom, not less. Man today in the advanced regions of the world has more freedom and choice than ever before – in occupation, in geographical mobility, in overall life chances.
6.53 Social design means, therefore, the re-design of both the physical and social aspects of man’s environment towards the widening of ’multiple choices’ for the greatest number of men – as distinct from previous societies in which choice, in this sense, was restricted to comparatively small elites. For the majority, life in earlier, agriculturally based marginal-survival societies was largely constrained in either/or terms – either conform or be punished, either ’marry or burn’, and so on! When we may now produce far beyond immediate necessity, most of these constraints hitherto necessary for group survival become obsolete. A vast range of material means and alternative life conditions, previously unattainable, are now freely available. When the growth of such industrial means removes dependence on the natural cycles, frees man from geographical limits, measurably extends his life expectancy, etc., the human condition may be phrased in terms of a multiplicity of both/and life choice possibilities. Life need no longer be constrained by material survival and ’economic’ necessity. Ways of ’earning a living’ are replaced more simply by ways of living. The ranges of choice, of life style, milieu and vocation are enormously extended.
6.54 In considering the design parameters of new societal forms, as no longer based on earlier survival needs to labor in the traditional sense, or to conform to other survival pressures historically conditioned by material limitations, many alternate modes of individual and group life styles become possible. Our traditional attitudes and ideologies are inadequate guides to the future. Faced with possible abundance for all, they tend to perpetuate old inequities and insecurities; confronted with freedom, they will often assume new forms of slavery.
6.55 The strongest attitudes still surround the nature of material wealth, value and meaning as related to their past forms. There is a refusal to accept potentially ’limitless’ wealth as inherent in our technological processes. That there is no longer any intrinsic material value in physical products, resources or material ’property’ has not yet reached general consciousness. Yet it is clearly demonstrable that industrial society is non-materialistic in its basic direction, as progressively less human life hours, energies or values are attached to its material means and products. Material ’possession’ declines steadily as a source of economic power, and ownership is no longer a necessary use relation between people and facilities. Technological means actually trend toward using less material and being less materially evident, e.g., as either ’invisibly’ operating in non-
6.56 Towards the Future 132
6.57 visible portions of the spectrum, or as progressively miniaturized.
6.58 The future of society is, in this sense, less centrally dependent on the further elaboration of material technologies whose evolution may continue with less investment of human energy and attention. Our priorities lie, rather, with social invention, with the understanding and re-design of our social ’ecological’ possibilities. Here, of course, we must beware of interpreting ’ecology’ too literally. We do not know enough about the design of human society as an ecological process to be able to rationalize its wastes, discards and useful products! Rather, our direction may be to experiment more consciously with innovative social organizations, exploratory groups, and new modes of individual and cooperative social action and decision-making.
6.59 The design of such forms is already evident in many societies at different levels – from the ’systems’ approach to large-scale complex tasks, to the experimental life styles of various marginal groups. The problem of more consciously directed social exploration may be viewed at two related levels – one, to encourage within local societies those new forms of social organization which may provide internally innovative directions – experimental ecological units directed towards social, vocational and other purposes. A specific example of this form has been referred to recently by a distinguished anthropologist:
6.60 We have not yet created, even on a pilot experimental basis, a type of social organization capable of finding, recruiting, educating, and providing for the innovative intelligence we need. Yet there is little doubt that . . . there is a sufficient number of highly gifted individuals who, given the proper cultural conditions in which to work, could go on to make the necessary innovations . . . It is vitally necessary for us to find the means of creating the evolutionary clusters for which (our present social) problems provide a focus.
6.61 Two, such ’evolutionary cluster’ units are not only necessary in the local society, but even more required at the transnational, world society, level. One of our most urgent global needs is the design of such units, organizations and agencies which may mitigate and counter balance the more negative forces conducive to tension and conflict. The United Nations, though still rendered ineffective by its political format, is a useful prototype for viable forms of similar magnitude which might progressively supersede those obsolete mechanisms which perpetuate, rather than diminish, global inequities and the danger of world warring.
6.62 In this regard, the international regulatory and professional organizations, the various formal and informal world associations and union, etc., represent a sector of the ’noosphere’, the potential of whose function is as yet unrealized. Apart from the ’invisible’ regulatory agencies maintaining the vital operation of the world postal, air transport, broadcasting and other ecological networks, there is the more direct action of regulatory bodies concerned with specific areas of human activity. For example, the First World Conference of United Auto Workers in 1966 announced its goal of international collective bargaining directed towards parity of wages in world terms. From such steps, of which many could be cited, we may also envisage other global effects of the emergence of world
6.63 Continuities in Cultural Evolution, Margaret Mead, (Yale University Press 1965).
6.64 man – already beginning to control and dispose of his facilities and requirements in ways which increasingly transcend yesterday’s sovereignties and their insecurities. As local royalties have moved from their historically central position in the polity to none the less socially central but symbolic functions, so many of our later political structures will be increasingly circumvented in their function at the world level. We already realize this, not only in the limited example above of setting work conditions transnationally, but in the power to resolve dangerous world conflicts through the regulatory control of airlines, telecommunications and other essential global services. The complex technological inter- dependence of all sovereign nations on an enormous range of such services to maintain their daily operation, in reality, now renders ineffective any attempts at unilateral action based on some imaginary sovereign autonomy. We are, of course, still hypnotised by such notions, and cling to them tenaciously, even though they are no longer operable in the real world.
6.65 As science is turned to, increasingly, for public and legislative guidance in both physical and social affairs, many scientists have begun to question the ethical accountability of their professions for the uses to which science may be put. Such uses have, hitherto, been determined almost wholly by the attitudes and circumstances of their local national societies. There is an increasing realization that the central allegiance of science to the maintenance of the larger human community must take precedence over the more transient, and often dangerous, predilections of such local sovereignties.
6.66 In a further example of transnational action, the ’Pugwash’ Scientific Conference of 1966 reported on the setting up of their own inspection teams against the development of biological and other weapons, to circumvent the political deadlock on such controls. We may again envisage the future apolitical enforcement of such control measures by with- drawal of key scientific services and support from contravening nations. In the interests of larger human welfare, we already control the spread of smallpox, plague and other physical viruses by restricting intercontinental traffic, impounding cargoes and the like. We patently need to enlarge our concepts, and enforcement of human welfare to monitor and control the spread of other ecological threats to the global community.
6.67 To accomplish such tasks and to ease our presently painful transition toward a more equitable world society, we require many such global agencies, diversely organized and broadly representative of all positive transnational forces.
6.68 Our generation faces the future with globally developed physical capabilities which free man, for the first time in human history, from age-old ’fear’ constraints of material scarcity, individual and group insecurity and the necessary competition for life survival through access to limited resources. This enormous capability inherent in all our developed sciences, arts and technologies was not created by us, in our period only, but results from the cumulative experience and knowledge of countless generations of men all around the earth. From this time forward our central task is to apply this accummulated advantage not only in measures of one or a few generations of men, of some preferred national or ideological group, but in terms of all men – now – and in the future.
APPENDIX
6.69"THE WORLD DESIGN SCIENCE DECADE 1965 - 1975"
6.70 This program was proposed by R. Buckminster Fuller to the International Union of Architects (IUA) at their VIth World Congress in England in 1961. He suggested then that the architectural and environmental planning schools around the world be encouraged by the IUA to invest the next ten years in a continuing theme of "How to make the world work" – how to redesign the world’s prime tool networks and environment facilities so as to make the world’s total resources, now serving only 44 percent of humanity, serve 100 percent through competent scientific design and anticipatory planning.
6.71 This proposal called for the initiation, by the world schools, of a continuing survey of the total chemical and energy resources now available to man on a global scale, and of human trends and needs in relation to these resources – of how we may redesign the use of these resources to serve all humanity.
6.72 Document One (1963), "Inventory of World Resources, Human Trends and Needs," by R. Buckminster Fuller and John McHale, was presented to the world architects and students at their International Symposium in Mexico City, October, 1963. This "inventory" outlined the main aspects of man’s present world resources position and provided a broad survey of his major trends and needs relative to his resources.
6.73 Document Two (1964), "World Design Initiative," by R. Buckminster Fuller, dealt specifically with the manner in which the world students might assume the initiative, and gave procedural outlines and examples for the conduct of generalized design science exploration.
6.74 During 1964 there was a considerably increased response to the program by schools and student groups around the world. Various student projects on the first phase of the program, "World Literacy re World Problems," were forwarded for exhibit at the VIIth World Congress of the IUA in Paris, July 1965. The IUA set aside exposition space for this in the Tuileries Gardens and this first exposition was given a most favorable and encouraging coverage in the world press.
6.75 Document Three (1965), "Comprehensive Thinking," by R. Buckminster Fuller and Document Four (1965), "The Ten Year Program," by John McHale were prepared for the 1965 Paris Congress. They discuss in detail the forward program.
6.76 In 1967 there will be three major events in the world students’ activity.
6.77 One: Participation in the IXth IUA World Congress to be held in Prague, Czechoslovakia in July. R. Buckminster Fuller will speak in the Tribune Libre section of the Congress reporting on the WDSD program, and an exhibit of work from the program will be displayed in one of the Prague schools.
6.78 Two: World Design Science Decade Conference, London, later in July has been arranged by the United Kingdom WDSD Coordinators at the Architectural Association School of Architecture. A number of distinguished speakers will address the Conference and an exhibit of WDSD student projects will be displayed in one of the main public squares in London.
6.79 Three: World Students’ Design Science Day – EXPO 67. With the cooperation of the Canadian Corporation for the World Exhibition 1967 and the McGill University School of Architecture, a conference will be held on August 25th. An exhibit of world students’ work in the program will be displayed in the EXPO International Youth Science Week.
6.80 135 W.D.S.D. 1967 Document 6
6.81 In relation to the above meetings, and as part of the work being forwarded in the next phase of the program, two further ’guide’ documents have been prepared:
6.82 Document Five (1967), "Comprehensive Design Strategy," by R. Buckminster Fuller Document Six (1967), "The Ecological Context: Energy and Materials," by John McHale
6.83 The role of the World Resources Inventory center at Southern Illinois University is essentially that of a coordination agency and clearinghouse for information on the world students’ program. This center assembles information on world resources and potentials in relation to human trends and needs. From this data collection and analysis the WDSD documents, and other publications, are prepared which serve as guide sources for work in the program.
6.84 The preparation of projects by student and school groups around the world rests with initiative of the collaborating individuals. Since the inauguration of the program many such groups have also spontaneously assumed the responsibility for coordinating work, arranging meetings, exhibits and conferences in their various countries.
6.85 The five two-year stages of the program, which follow, should be considered as overlapping and interweaving – their given order only indicates prior emphasis for consideration.
6.86 Phase 1. World Literacy re World Problems - World Industrio-Economic Literacy and its design science solution by dramatic educational tools for realization of the world resources inventory of human trends and needs – world’s people. Together with dramatic indication of potential solution, by design science upping of the overall performance of world resource units to serve 100 percent instead of the present 44 percent of humanity.
6.87 Phase 2. Prime Movers and Prime Metals - Review and analysis of world energy resources differentiation between "income" and "capital" energies – design of more efficient utilization. Analysis of circulation and scrap recycling of prime metals. Redesign towards comprehensive and more efficient use and reuse "assemblies" with higher extraction of performance per unit of all invested prime metals in use.
6.88 Phase 3. Tool Evolution - Differentiation and evolution of machine tools – the integration of these tools into the industrial complex; review and analysis of generalized and specialized tools - automated processes and control systems - redesign and replanning of total world tool complexes and instrumentation systems, i.e., total buildings, jig assembled by computer within optimum environment control, air delivered, ready to use in one helilift.
6.89 Phase 4. The Service Industries - Analysis of world network of service industries, i.e., telephone, airways, communication services, hoteling, universities. General extension of dynamic network operating principles into formerly "static" areas of environment control both internal and external. Frequency modulated, - world planning of three shift, 24-hour use of facilities, i.e., most industrial facilities as yet operating under obsolete agricultural dawn to dusk, single frequency usage. Trans-sonic 1800 mph air travel transcends day-night and seasonal characteristics. Men literally jump out of night into day and out of winter into summer in minutes. Thus, local patterns of facilities employment trending swiftly into 24-hour success of users, i.e., electrically lit telephone booths by roadside.
6.90 Appendix
6.91 Phase 5. The Evolving Contact Products - Usually phrased as "end products" – there are, in effect, no end products but only the contact instruments of industrializations human ecology services which are the plug-in or latch-on terminals of service industries, e.g., the telephone, transportation and other communication units, the motel (bathroom and bed) - and eventually the world-around environ control service unit.
6.92 The "World Design Science Decade" may be generally viewed as requiring a major shift of emphasis in the education of the architect and environment planner. It defines a much larger context of social initiative and respondibility, and charges the emergent architect and planner not only with designing the major ecological environment facilities required by man but also with designing the means whereby such full environmental advantage may be made available to all men.
6.93 John McHale Carbondale, Illinois June 1967